Geological Formations and the Quagmire of Stream Extinction in Southern Nigeria

Emmanuel Peter Udofia; Unyime Udoette Saturday

doi:doi:10.11648/j.es.20251003.12

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Geological Formations and the Quagmire of Stream Extinction in Southern Nigeria

Emmanuel Peter Udofia, Unyime Udoette Saturday^*

Published in Engineering Science (Volume 10, Issue 3)

Received: 29 June 2025 Accepted: 14 July 2025 Published: 9 December 2025

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Abstract

Geology plays a key role in determining the behavior of the ecosystem including its streams network and a better understanding of this concept is the first step toward ecosystem and water sustainability. Hence, this study examines geological formations and the quagmire of stream extinction in Southern Nigeria. Two different geological formations in Southern Nigeria were considered in this study which include the Coastal Plain Sands using Kwa Iboe River in Akwa Ibom State and Basement Complex in some parts of Cross River State. Six matured watersheds were purposively selected from each geological formation (six in Coastal Plain Sands and six in Basement Complex), making a total of twelve (12) watersheds. These cut across Idim Awankwo, Midim, Utu Abak, Anyang, Ibedu and Akpeti watersheds in the Coastal Plain Sands in the Kwa Iboe River and Iwuru, Uyanga, Abonabung, Akor Ako, Okpon and Inyang Iba watersheds in the Basement Complex in Cross River. The result of the summary of the morphometric characteristics shows lower bifurcation ratio in the CPS indicating watersheds in which the geologic structure does not exercise a dominant influence on the drainage pattern while the reverse is the case in BC. In area aspect, the result shows complicated values and high circularity ratio in BC due to the presence of a combination of lithological formations, leading to differential erosion and subsequently to watershed displacement. Statistical analysis using independent t-test analysis shows a p-value of 0.007 which is an indication that there is a significant difference in the morphological parameters of Basement Complex and Coastal Plain Sands as they relate to stream extinction. The summary of the study indicates that streams in the ancient basement complex rocks of Cross River State have restricted area, high values of basin relief and high bifurcation ratio due to inability of streams to erode easily, unlike the weak sedimentary rocks. More so, streams in the CPS recorded less influence from the geological structure of the basins, making the soil have loose particles and highly susceptible to infiltration and highest level of stream extinction. This supports the observable disparity on the basin resilience as one traverse along the river course. Hence, it was recommended that since the CPS is highly prone to stream extinction, desilting the stream channel should be given a priority by stakeholders.

Published in	Engineering Science (Volume 10, Issue 3)
DOI	10.11648/j.es.20251003.12
Page(s)	92-103
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Geology, Watershed, Stream Extinction, Basement Complex, Coastal Plain Sands

References

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[2]	Enoh, C. (2000). Man-Impact on Environment. In: Inyang, I. B. (ed.) South-Eastern Nigeria: Its Environment. Kaduna: Abaam Publishing Company.
[3]	Eze, B. and Joel, E. (2010). Morphometric Parameters of the Calabar River Basin: Implication for Hydrologic Processes. Journal of Geography and Geology 2(1) 18-26.
[4]	George, U. and Akpan, E. (2020). Assessing the Impacts of Coastal Activities on the Water Quality of Qua Iboe River Estuary, South-South, Nigeria. Nature and Science; 18(5): 50-64.
[5]	Gupta, R. and Jindal, A. (2000). Influence of Buried Topography on Surface Drainage Pattern. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 21(2): 209-211.
[6]	NiMeT (Nigerian Meteorological Agency) (2023) Seasonal Rainfall Prediction (SRP) Periodic Monitoring Report. Dated – Thursday, 28 December 2023: 18-19.
[7]	NPC (National Population Census) (2006). 2006 Population Census Data of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria; Abuja NPC: National Population Commission, 37 p.
[8]	Pareta, K. and Pareta, U. (2011). Quantitative Morphometric Analysis of a Watershed of Yamuna Basin, India using ASTER (DEM) Data and GIS. International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, 2(1): 248-269.
[9]	Saturday, U., Udosen, C., and Ubom, O. (2021) Drainage Network Characteristics of Order-3 Basins in the Sedimentary Rocks in Southeastern Nigeria: Implications on Hydrologic Processes. Conference Proceedings of the Association of Nigerian Geographers (ANG) 61st Annual Conference, held at the University of Calabar from 9th – 12th August 2021, 109 p.
[10]	Tom, H. (2023) Why is the Euphrates River Drying Up and What Does It Mean? IFLScience. Retrieved from https://www.iflscience.com January, 2024.
[11]	Udofia, E. P. (2010). Environmental Problems. In: Usoro, E. J. and Akpan, P. A. (eds) Akwa Ibom State: A Geographical Perspective. Enugu: Immaculate Publications Limited.
[12]	Udosen, C. (2009) Environmental Constraints on the Interdependence of Drainage Basin Morphometric Properties in the Upper Cross River. Global Journal of Geological Sciences 7(2) 119 – 124.
[13]	Udosen, C., Okon, M., Abasi-Ifreke, S. and Malachy, U. (2021) Morphometric Analysis of Lower Enyong Creek Basin in South-Eastern Nigeria; its Implications for Applied Studies. Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 27(1): 10-14.

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Udofia, E. P., Saturday, U. U. (2025). Geological Formations and the Quagmire of Stream Extinction in Southern Nigeria. Engineering Science, 10(3), 92-103. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.es.20251003.12

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ACS Style

Udofia, E. P.; Saturday, U. U. Geological Formations and the Quagmire of Stream Extinction in Southern Nigeria. Eng. Sci. 2025, 10(3), 92-103. doi: 10.11648/j.es.20251003.12

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AMA Style

Udofia EP, Saturday UU. Geological Formations and the Quagmire of Stream Extinction in Southern Nigeria. Eng Sci. 2025;10(3):92-103. doi: 10.11648/j.es.20251003.12

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@article{10.11648/j.es.20251003.12,
  author = {Emmanuel Peter Udofia and Unyime Udoette Saturday},
  title = {Geological Formations and the Quagmire of Stream Extinction in Southern Nigeria},
  journal = {Engineering Science},
  volume = {10},
  number = {3},
  pages = {92-103},
  doi = {10.11648/j.es.20251003.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.es.20251003.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.es.20251003.12},
  abstract = {Geology plays a key role in determining the behavior of the ecosystem including its streams network and a better understanding of this concept is the first step toward ecosystem and water sustainability. Hence, this study examines geological formations and the quagmire of stream extinction in Southern Nigeria. Two different geological formations in Southern Nigeria were considered in this study which include the Coastal Plain Sands using Kwa Iboe River in Akwa Ibom State and Basement Complex in some parts of Cross River State. Six matured watersheds were purposively selected from each geological formation (six in Coastal Plain Sands and six in Basement Complex), making a total of twelve (12) watersheds. These cut across Idim Awankwo, Midim, Utu Abak, Anyang, Ibedu and Akpeti watersheds in the Coastal Plain Sands in the Kwa Iboe River and Iwuru, Uyanga, Abonabung, Akor Ako, Okpon and Inyang Iba watersheds in the Basement Complex in Cross River. The result of the summary of the morphometric characteristics shows lower bifurcation ratio in the CPS indicating watersheds in which the geologic structure does not exercise a dominant influence on the drainage pattern while the reverse is the case in BC. In area aspect, the result shows complicated values and high circularity ratio in BC due to the presence of a combination of lithological formations, leading to differential erosion and subsequently to watershed displacement. Statistical analysis using independent t-test analysis shows a p-value of 0.007 which is an indication that there is a significant difference in the morphological parameters of Basement Complex and Coastal Plain Sands as they relate to stream extinction. The summary of the study indicates that streams in the ancient basement complex rocks of Cross River State have restricted area, high values of basin relief and high bifurcation ratio due to inability of streams to erode easily, unlike the weak sedimentary rocks. More so, streams in the CPS recorded less influence from the geological structure of the basins, making the soil have loose particles and highly susceptible to infiltration and highest level of stream extinction. This supports the observable disparity on the basin resilience as one traverse along the river course. Hence, it was recommended that since the CPS is highly prone to stream extinction, desilting the stream channel should be given a priority by stakeholders.},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Geological Formations and the Quagmire of Stream Extinction in Southern Nigeria
AU  - Emmanuel Peter Udofia
AU  - Unyime Udoette Saturday
Y1  - 2025/12/09
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.es.20251003.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.es.20251003.12
T2  - Engineering Science
JF  - Engineering Science
JO  - Engineering Science
SP  - 92
EP  - 103
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2578-9279
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.es.20251003.12
AB  - Geology plays a key role in determining the behavior of the ecosystem including its streams network and a better understanding of this concept is the first step toward ecosystem and water sustainability. Hence, this study examines geological formations and the quagmire of stream extinction in Southern Nigeria. Two different geological formations in Southern Nigeria were considered in this study which include the Coastal Plain Sands using Kwa Iboe River in Akwa Ibom State and Basement Complex in some parts of Cross River State. Six matured watersheds were purposively selected from each geological formation (six in Coastal Plain Sands and six in Basement Complex), making a total of twelve (12) watersheds. These cut across Idim Awankwo, Midim, Utu Abak, Anyang, Ibedu and Akpeti watersheds in the Coastal Plain Sands in the Kwa Iboe River and Iwuru, Uyanga, Abonabung, Akor Ako, Okpon and Inyang Iba watersheds in the Basement Complex in Cross River. The result of the summary of the morphometric characteristics shows lower bifurcation ratio in the CPS indicating watersheds in which the geologic structure does not exercise a dominant influence on the drainage pattern while the reverse is the case in BC. In area aspect, the result shows complicated values and high circularity ratio in BC due to the presence of a combination of lithological formations, leading to differential erosion and subsequently to watershed displacement. Statistical analysis using independent t-test analysis shows a p-value of 0.007 which is an indication that there is a significant difference in the morphological parameters of Basement Complex and Coastal Plain Sands as they relate to stream extinction. The summary of the study indicates that streams in the ancient basement complex rocks of Cross River State have restricted area, high values of basin relief and high bifurcation ratio due to inability of streams to erode easily, unlike the weak sedimentary rocks. More so, streams in the CPS recorded less influence from the geological structure of the basins, making the soil have loose particles and highly susceptible to infiltration and highest level of stream extinction. This supports the observable disparity on the basin resilience as one traverse along the river course. Hence, it was recommended that since the CPS is highly prone to stream extinction, desilting the stream channel should be given a priority by stakeholders.
VL  - 10
IS  - 3
ER  -

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Author Information

Emmanuel Peter Udofia

Department of Geography and Natural Resources Management, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria

Contact Email
Unyime Udoette Saturday

Department of Geography and Natural Resources Management, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0009-0005-9084-1536

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APA Style

Udofia, E. P., Saturday, U. U. (2025). Geological Formations and the Quagmire of Stream Extinction in Southern Nigeria. Engineering Science, 10(3), 92-103. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.es.20251003.12

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ACS Style

Udofia, E. P.; Saturday, U. U. Geological Formations and the Quagmire of Stream Extinction in Southern Nigeria. Eng. Sci. 2025, 10(3), 92-103. doi: 10.11648/j.es.20251003.12

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AMA Style

Udofia EP, Saturday UU. Geological Formations and the Quagmire of Stream Extinction in Southern Nigeria. Eng Sci. 2025;10(3):92-103. doi: 10.11648/j.es.20251003.12

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.es.20251003.12,
  author = {Emmanuel Peter Udofia and Unyime Udoette Saturday},
  title = {Geological Formations and the Quagmire of Stream Extinction in Southern Nigeria},
  journal = {Engineering Science},
  volume = {10},
  number = {3},
  pages = {92-103},
  doi = {10.11648/j.es.20251003.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.es.20251003.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.es.20251003.12},
  abstract = {Geology plays a key role in determining the behavior of the ecosystem including its streams network and a better understanding of this concept is the first step toward ecosystem and water sustainability. Hence, this study examines geological formations and the quagmire of stream extinction in Southern Nigeria. Two different geological formations in Southern Nigeria were considered in this study which include the Coastal Plain Sands using Kwa Iboe River in Akwa Ibom State and Basement Complex in some parts of Cross River State. Six matured watersheds were purposively selected from each geological formation (six in Coastal Plain Sands and six in Basement Complex), making a total of twelve (12) watersheds. These cut across Idim Awankwo, Midim, Utu Abak, Anyang, Ibedu and Akpeti watersheds in the Coastal Plain Sands in the Kwa Iboe River and Iwuru, Uyanga, Abonabung, Akor Ako, Okpon and Inyang Iba watersheds in the Basement Complex in Cross River. The result of the summary of the morphometric characteristics shows lower bifurcation ratio in the CPS indicating watersheds in which the geologic structure does not exercise a dominant influence on the drainage pattern while the reverse is the case in BC. In area aspect, the result shows complicated values and high circularity ratio in BC due to the presence of a combination of lithological formations, leading to differential erosion and subsequently to watershed displacement. Statistical analysis using independent t-test analysis shows a p-value of 0.007 which is an indication that there is a significant difference in the morphological parameters of Basement Complex and Coastal Plain Sands as they relate to stream extinction. The summary of the study indicates that streams in the ancient basement complex rocks of Cross River State have restricted area, high values of basin relief and high bifurcation ratio due to inability of streams to erode easily, unlike the weak sedimentary rocks. More so, streams in the CPS recorded less influence from the geological structure of the basins, making the soil have loose particles and highly susceptible to infiltration and highest level of stream extinction. This supports the observable disparity on the basin resilience as one traverse along the river course. Hence, it was recommended that since the CPS is highly prone to stream extinction, desilting the stream channel should be given a priority by stakeholders.},
 year = {2025}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Geological Formations and the Quagmire of Stream Extinction in Southern Nigeria
AU  - Emmanuel Peter Udofia
AU  - Unyime Udoette Saturday
Y1  - 2025/12/09
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.es.20251003.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.es.20251003.12
T2  - Engineering Science
JF  - Engineering Science
JO  - Engineering Science
SP  - 92
EP  - 103
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2578-9279
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.es.20251003.12
AB  - Geology plays a key role in determining the behavior of the ecosystem including its streams network and a better understanding of this concept is the first step toward ecosystem and water sustainability. Hence, this study examines geological formations and the quagmire of stream extinction in Southern Nigeria. Two different geological formations in Southern Nigeria were considered in this study which include the Coastal Plain Sands using Kwa Iboe River in Akwa Ibom State and Basement Complex in some parts of Cross River State. Six matured watersheds were purposively selected from each geological formation (six in Coastal Plain Sands and six in Basement Complex), making a total of twelve (12) watersheds. These cut across Idim Awankwo, Midim, Utu Abak, Anyang, Ibedu and Akpeti watersheds in the Coastal Plain Sands in the Kwa Iboe River and Iwuru, Uyanga, Abonabung, Akor Ako, Okpon and Inyang Iba watersheds in the Basement Complex in Cross River. The result of the summary of the morphometric characteristics shows lower bifurcation ratio in the CPS indicating watersheds in which the geologic structure does not exercise a dominant influence on the drainage pattern while the reverse is the case in BC. In area aspect, the result shows complicated values and high circularity ratio in BC due to the presence of a combination of lithological formations, leading to differential erosion and subsequently to watershed displacement. Statistical analysis using independent t-test analysis shows a p-value of 0.007 which is an indication that there is a significant difference in the morphological parameters of Basement Complex and Coastal Plain Sands as they relate to stream extinction. The summary of the study indicates that streams in the ancient basement complex rocks of Cross River State have restricted area, high values of basin relief and high bifurcation ratio due to inability of streams to erode easily, unlike the weak sedimentary rocks. More so, streams in the CPS recorded less influence from the geological structure of the basins, making the soil have loose particles and highly susceptible to infiltration and highest level of stream extinction. This supports the observable disparity on the basin resilience as one traverse along the river course. Hence, it was recommended that since the CPS is highly prone to stream extinction, desilting the stream channel should be given a priority by stakeholders.
VL  - 10
IS  - 3
ER  -

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