Policy Coherence for the Creation of Sustainable Communities Through Mixed Use Developments in Ghana: Implications for Sustainable Community Development

David Sam Afful; Michael Poku-Boansi; Benjamin Doe; Michael Osei Asibey

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13

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Policy Coherence for the Creation of Sustainable Communities Through Mixed Use Developments in Ghana: Implications for Sustainable Community Development

David Sam Afful^*

, Michael Poku-Boansi

, Benjamin Doe

, Michael Osei Asibey

Published in International Journal of Systems Engineering (Volume 9, Issue 2)

Received: 14 May 2025 Accepted: 3 September 2025 Published: 25 September 2025

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Abstract

This research investigated the extent of policy consistency in Ghana's national urban planning policy documents and development framework. It highlights the role of urban policies in enabling the implementation of sustainable communities. Adopting a qualitative content analysis method, the study analyses strategic alignment of seven policy documents using the PCD framework that focused on five drivers of sustainable communities, namely environmental conservation and resilience, social equity and inclusivity, economic prosperity and innovation, smart urban planning and design, and community engagement and participation. The Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework enabled the identification of alignment, fragmentation, and conflict across policy instruments and governance structures. The findings show some degree of policy coherence in promoting land use efficiency, minimising urban sprawl, fostering compact developments, and boosting local economic growth. However, significant gaps persist. These gaps include the absence of explicitly stated institutional mandates for the implementation of MUD, misalignment between urban and transportation policies, and social injustice and exclusion. Furthermore, the study divulges that the cross-referencing of policy documents is inadequate, resulting in disjointed implementation, fragmented development efforts and governance challenges. The study concludes that the inconsistencies in Ghana's national urban policies significantly impede the attainment of sustainable community development prospects.

Published in	International Journal of Systems Engineering (Volume 9, Issue 2)
DOI	10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13
Page(s)	33-55
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Policy Coherence, Sustainable Communities, Mixed-Use Developments, Sustainable Community Development, Ghana

1. Introduction

Urbanisation is a widespread global phenomenon

[72]

, and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is not immune to this trend

[149]

. Similarly, urban policy in recent years has focused significantly on urbanisation, as evidenced by various scholarly works

[17, 76, 123, 77, 152, 15, 113, 104, 117]

. Currently, the process of Urbanisation in developing countries, especially in Asian and African nations, is a significant problem for city planners and managers

[114, 43]

. The rapid pace of Urbanisation has caused disruptions in urban planning, leading to disorder marked by increased poverty, the proliferation of slums, traffic jams, and urban sprawl

[102, 91, 84]

. With these impacts, creating sustainable communities via mixed-use developments (MUDs) has been a significant policy focus in SSA cities due to many implications

[126, 54, 135, 60]

. Nations have implemented many policy interventions over the years via local, national, and international cooperation

[59]

. However, studies have shown instances of fragmentation and duplication in efforts to tackle urban difficulties

[55, 68, 116]

. In a similar vein, the interactions among policies at the operational level may either augment or impede one another, thereby influencing their overall effectiveness

[8, 88, 136]

. Research indicates that several of these policies are not aligned with each other

[55, 14, 116, 68]

Policy coherency is the degree of integration among various policy elements that systematically facilitate the achievement of common objectives

[63, 96, 41, 116]

. Policy coherence is considered crucial for effectively implementing global policy frameworks. Many experts argue that coherent policymaking enables governments in managing trade-offs between goals s in a fair and transparent way

[53, 26, 99, 95]

. The concept first became popular in the European Union during the 1990s and has regained attention from policymakers and scholars with the implementation of the 2030 Agenda and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). SDG target 17.14 seeks to improve policy coherence for sustainable development (PCSD), which involves integrating the social, economic, and environmental aspects of sustainable development in both domestic and international policy making

[99]

. The policy coherence literature extensively discusses barriers to policy coherence

[110]

. However, these barriers are often limited to internal factors within the policy process, such as a lack of coordination between ministries. They do not sufficiently explore the underlying interests, ideas, and institutions in society that contribute to these barriers.

Ghana as a developing country has a geographical size of 238,000 Km² and is classified as a lower-middle-income nation

[27]

. It shares border with Togo to the east, its western border with Cote d'Ivoire, and its northern border with Burkina Faso. According to the 2021 Census conducted by the Ghana Statistical Service, Ghana's population is estimated to be 30.8 million, with females accounting for 51% and males accounting for 49% of the total population. By 2030, it is estimated that the population of the nation would increase to 37 million people. Ghana is geographically segmented into 16 regions and administratively subdivided into 261 district assemblies. The service sector has the highest level of dominance in the economy, contributing around 46% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), while the industrial sector accounts for 33% and agricultural sector contributes 21% to the GDP (Ghana Statistical Service, 2021). Ghana is noted as the largest employer with at least 40% of the country's workforce and around 71% of those residing in rural areas

[27]

. Ghana's aim is to attain high-income status by the year 2056 and plans to increase per capita GDP twofold in the foreseeable future. In recent years, urbanisation in Ghana has swiftly changed the landscape, resulting in a higher need for housing, infrastructure, and amenities. In responding to these challenges, Mixed-use developments (MUDs) have been identified by policy makers as essential for creating sustainable communities.

Creating sustainable communities is a crucial objective for nations globally

[137]

, and Ghana is not an exception. Given the fast growth of cities and the rising problems associated with urban areas

[75, 71]

, there is an increasing acknowledgment of the need for creative methods to urban development that prioritise sustainability, social inclusivity, and economic prosperity

[60]

. One of such an emerging strategy that is becoming more popular is the concept of MUDs. These developments include diverse land uses in a unified way, providing housing, business, leisure, and often environmentally-friendly areas within the same location

[143, 37]

. Implementing MUDs in Ghana have the potential to tackle several urban difficulties concurrently, including housing shortages, traffic congestion, environmental degradation, and economic inequities

[62, 58, 70]

MUDs are characterized by the incorporation of diverse land uses within a single development, including residential, commercial, and recreational areas

[37, 138]

. MUDs have the ability to reduce reliance on cars, limit urban sprawl, and improve people' quality of life by advocating for compact, walkable, and transit-oriented neighbourhoods

[128, 78, 122, 147]

. Nevertheless, achieving sustainable communities via MUDs involves more than simply combining different types of land use physically

[101, 142]

. It demands a detailed comprehension of policy coherence. Ensuring the coherence and harmonization of government policies, legislation, and initiatives to support the creation of sustainable and dynamic urban environments. The implications of policy consistency in the context of MUDs in Ghana are extensive and profound. This study examines multifaceted dimensions of policy coherence and its significant impact on sustainable community development in Ghana through the lens of MUDs.

Policy coherence, in this context, pertains to the harmonization of policies across sectors such as urban planning, housing, transportation, environmental protection, and economic growth

[51]

. The goal is to provide a conducive environment for the creation of sustainable MUDs. Effective coherence ensures that policies operate in synergy rather than in isolation. Acknowledging that urban challenges, such as traffic congestion, housing shortages, and environmental degradation, cannot be effectively dealt with by addressing them separately, but rather need comprehensive and coordinated solutions.

Nevertheless, research highlights persistent fragmentation, duplication, and incoherence across sectors

[68, 55, 116]

. These deficiencies limit the efficiency of adaptation measures and undermine sustainable urban development. To enhance coherence involves transferring supportive instruments and practices across sectors while ensuring resource efficiency

[26, 64, 39]

. However, fragmented institutional structures in Africa

[47, 89, 61, 16]

continue to pose barriers, creating gaps between sustainable community objectives and the practical realisation of MUDs

[55]

. Against this backdrop, the central research objective is to examine policy coherence in the establishment of sustainable communities through MUDs in Ghana and evaluate its implications for sustainable community development. Hence, this study intends to address the following questions:

1) What are the motivators, measures and implementation plan for creating sustainable communities?

2) How coherent are the policies in addressing urbanization impacts?

This study draws data from Ghana, and uses the Policy Coherence for Development (PCD) framework to analyse the motivations, measures, and implementation strategies aimed at incorporating sustainable community concerns into MUDs. It argues that fragmentation and incoherence between policies on sustainable communities and MUDs create planning and governance challenges that threaten the attainment of Sustainable Development Goal 11 in SSA cities. The study analyses intersecting policy domains to demonstrate how coherence can foster equitable, ecologically sustainable, and economically robust urban spaces. It also addresses the contributions of local government, public-private partnerships, and community engagement in enhancing coherence. At the same time, it identifies challenges that may impede effective implementation. Ultimately, the study contributes to the discourse on sustainable community development in Ghana by emphasising the value of integrated and coordinated policies that position MUDs as catalysts for sustainable urban growth, thereby offering a basis for informed decision-making and policy formulation aimed at building vibrant, inclusive, and environmentally responsible urban communities.

2. Overview of Sustainable Communities and Mixed-Use Developments Initiatives in Ghana

2.1. Sustainable Communities

During the 1950s and 1960s, Community Development (CD) was widely promoted across the developing world as both a strategy to enhance living standards and a vehicle for state-building in the context of independence and decolonisation movements in Africa [36, 38]. In Anglophone Africa, CD initiatives were heavily shaped by modernisation theory, which framed the provision of infrastructure as a means of transforming “underdeveloped” regions into modern societies [141]. Reflecting this orientation, the Gold Coast administration had already begun experimenting with CD initiatives in the early 1940s, culminating in the establishment of the Community Development Department in 1948 to spearhead rural development interventions. However, over five decades of development assistance, evolving strategies, and institutional reforms, the outcomes for Ghana’s population have been limited. As [38] notes, efforts by the state, in conjunction with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank over the past three decades, have yielded only marginal improvements in livelihoods and economic growth for the majority of citizens.

Amidst fast urban growth and rising urban issues, there is a rising acknowledgment of the necessity for new approaches to create sustainable communities that emphasise sustainability, social inclusion, and economic vitality

[67, 87, 126, 140]

. These studies, along with others, demonstrate that sustainable communities may enhance social well-being and foster economic prosperity. Sustainable communities’ policies in Ghana focus on promoting environmentally conscious, socially inclusive, and economically viable development `practices across urban and rural areas. The government, in partnership with other stakeholders, has implemented many policies and activities to accomplish sustainability objectives throughout the country.

The National Housing Policy (NHP) was implemented in 2015 with 8 policy objectives as shown in Table 1. The 5^th of these objectives seeks to encourage structured expansion of human settlements with both physical and social infrastructures. The Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing (MWRWH) oversees the implementation of the NHP and related initiatives in Ghana through a decentralised framework. The policy has nine (9) initiative responses focused on fostering organised expansion of human settlements via physical and social infrastructure. These initiative are (i) Guide and ensure environmental sustainability and systematic development in the implementation of housing projects. This implies that, to ensure liveability, create economic opportunities, promote environmental stewardship, enhance design quality, and exhibit robust governance, all planning schemes must adhere to the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment as outlined in the Environmental Assessment Regulations of 1999 (LI 1652), Traffic Impact Assessments following international best practices, and comply with the Ghana Green Building Council's Framework for Green Community Development; (ii) Ensure the retention and improvement of green belts in all settlements. This suggests that green zones shall be strategically positioned within and at the peripheries of MMDAs, adhering to the guidelines established in the Land Use and Spatial Planning Act. Likewise, each region will be given target to classify land as green belt zones. Lands designated as Green belt zones will undergo enhancements through the improvement of accessibility, biodiversity, and amenity value; (iii) Mandate the identification and acquisition of spaces for active and passive public recreation in neighbourhoods and communities; (iv) Reinforce the coastal sensitivity mapping and management initiative by the EPA to improve information on flood risk and land use zoning. This is expected to improve strategic planning and assure development oversight; (v) Protect and enhance biodiversity using Landscape Character/Capacity Assessments and Local Biodiversity Action Plans; (vi) Mainstream and scale up the on-going flood disaster mitigation measures by removing properties situated in flood plains and obstructing water courses to minimise the frequency of disasters arising from such illegal blockages; (vii) Promote the reduction of storm water run-off in communities through storm water management (collection, recycling and reuse) for irrigation, watering of lawns, flushing of toilets, etc. leading to minimization of perennial flood among other things. This mandates Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies to evaluate and provide credits through property tax deductions for all developments that effectively minimise storm water run-off, as outlined in the Ghana Green Building rating tool under the sub-category ‘Water Course pollution’; (viii) Promote water conservation through rainwater harvesting, storage and usage in both rural and urban areas using appropriate housing designs; and (ix) Develop engineered landfill sites in major urban and metropolitan areas with adequate equipment and operational funds to support waste management activities.

The National Urban Policy (NUP) is essential for fostering sustainable communities nationwide. It was enacted in 2012, with 12 policy objectives. The 6^th of these objectives seeks to ensure efficient urban infrastructure and service delivery. The Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD) is responsible for executing the NUP and its action plan (NUPAP) in Ghana via the decentralisation system. The policy has seven (7) initiatives and twenty-eight activities all aimed at ensuring efficient urban infrastructure and service delivery. These initiatives are (i) Assess infrastructure needs of urban areas and mobilize resources to support infrastructural development; (ii) Improve delivery and management of urban services and infrastructure (including education, health, water, sanitation, energy); (iii) Guide and manage investments in all relevant transport modes for an efficient and effective intra and inter-city transport development; (iv) Promote efficient and effective public transport systems; (v) Develop and manage infrastructure systems with appropriate technology and standards to suit the peculiarities of urban communities; (vi) Provide adequate technical capacity, equipment and operational funds to support waste management activities; and (vii) Provide infrastructure and services on the basis of national/regional/district spatial development framework and urban structure plans.

The National Environmental Policy (NEP) was established in 1995 to provide a fundamental framework for environmental management and the advancement of sustainable development in the country. This policy reflects Ghana's dedication to tackling environmental challenges while simultaneously promoting socio-economic development. The NEP is based on seven guiding principles, which aim to promote sustainable development. One of the key concepts is submitting all policies, plans, and programmes of the government to sustainable environmental evaluation. The policy is guided by the following principles: (i) promoting urban centres as engines of growth, (ii) promoting development through an integrated settlement system, (iii) facilitating socio-economic development of rural and lagging regions, (iv) mainstreaming environmental concerns into urban development, (v) enhancing participatory and accountable urban governance, (vi) employing information, education and communication strategy, and (vii) emphasising the roles of central and local governments. As discussed above, the fourth principle specifically aims to incorporate environmental considerations into urban development. Similarly, in 2008, the National Transport Policy (NTP) was established with 7 policy objectives. The second of these objectives is to provide a transport system that is sustainable, accessible, inexpensive, dependable, effective, and efficient in meeting the demands of its users. The Ministry of Transport (MT) of Ghana is responsible for executing the NTP and its strategies via the decentralization system.

The National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS) was developed to provide a strategic framework for addressing the impacts of climate change and promoting sustainable development.

NCCAS goal is ‘to enhance Ghana’s current and future development to climate change impacts by strengthening its adaptive capacity and building resilience of the society and ecosystems’. The strategy acknowledges Ghana’s vulnerability to climate change, particularly in key priority areas such as early warning, capacity development, infrastructure, health, energy system, water resources, agriculture, and biodiversity. By focusing on these key sectors, enhancing institutional governance, and mobilizing climate finance, the strategy seeks to safeguard livelihoods, promote sustainable development, and reduce climate vulnerability.

Subsequently, the National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) established in 2013 serves as the national framework for realising a vision of ensuring a climate-resilient and climate-compatible economy, while promoting sustainable development via equitable low-carbon economic growth in Ghana. The framework comprises seven pillars thus governance and coordination; capacity building; science technology and innovation; finance; international cooperation; and information, communication and education; along with monitoring and reporting. Following the key thematic areas identified, five primary policy areas were prioritised, namely agriculture; disaster preparedness and response; natural resource; equitable social development; and energy, industrial, and infrastructural development. The Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation is the entity tasked with implementing this policy. This policy highlights sustainable issues and communities, with the terms 'sustainable' and 'community' appearing 45 and 87 times, respectively. Integrating climate change into national development planning will enable Ghana among others to safeguard natural resources, advance renewable energy, and strengthen adaptive capacity across various sectors.

The aforementioned policies and initiatives reflect Ghana's commitment to achieving sustainable community development, eliminating poverty, and improving the overall quality of life for its residents while addressing environmental challenges. It is important to note that policy implementation and effectiveness may vary across regions, and continuous efforts are needed to achieve the desired sustainability outcomes.

Table 1. List of Urban Policies towards Sustainable Communities and Mixed Use Developments.

No.	Policy Documents	Year	Ministry
1	National Environmental Policy (NEP)	1995	Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI)
2	National Transport Policy (NTP)	2008	Ministry of Transportation (MT)
3	National Urban Policy (NUP)	2012	Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD)
4	National Urban Policy Action Plan (NUPAP)	2012	Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD)
5	National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS)	2012	Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI)
6	National Climate Change Policy (NCCP)	2013	Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI)
7	National Housing Policy (NHP)	2015	Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing (MWRWH)

2.2. Mixed-Use Developments

MUDs have shown effective in tackling urban challenges across various worldwide contexts

[144, 70, 145, 150]

. It promotes effective land use, reduces long commutes, and encourages pedestrian-friendly neighbourhoods

[32, 37, 71, 62]

. Given the prevailing urban difficulties encountered in Sub-Saharan Africa, MUDs have the potential to provide a practical and useful solution. Literature recognises that MUD policies influence the land use planning process and development models. A study by

[73]

emphasised the significance of MUD policy as a crucial element in contemporary urban theories and planning practices for establishing Sustainable Communities. Other studies have also noted the importance of MUD policy in mixed-use design. Nevertheless,

[121]

credited Jane Jacobs with originating the concept of MUD in 1961.

[66]

argue that the functional variety of MUD has a good influence on both the occupants and the neighbourhood, as supported by

[62]

[146]

suggest that combining functional uses may result in synergy rather than conflict and negative impacts, as noted in the literature by

[144]

[150]

and

[33]

[73]

contend that MUD policies establish equilibrium between work locations and housing locations, promoting walkability and decreasing reliance on vehicles. The authors also mention that an increase in the feeling of community and liveliness of the area are additional benefits of the MUD policy. Likewise,

[92]

recognise the significance of MUD policy and argue that the policy enhances MUD by focusing on the three pillars of sustainability: economic, social, and environmental. For example, an increase in property values, shorter commute durations, and reduced fuel and energy use are added values. MUDs in Ghana are becoming more prominent in order to encourage sustainable urbanisation, optimise land use, create lively urban centres, stimulate economic growth, and enhance people' quality of life. Ghana's policies and laws for MUDs are created to direct their planning, execution, and supervision. Although there are no specific policies solely focused on MUDs, several overarching urban and land-use policies impact and govern their creation.

The first Ghana’s National Urban Policy (NUP) made up of 12 policy objectives was formulated in 2012. The 5^th of these objectives seeks to ensure effective planning and management of urban growth and sprawl, especially of the primate cities and large urban centres. The Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD) is tasked with the implementation of the National Urban Policy (NUP) and its accompanying action plan (NUPAP) via the decentralisation framework in Ghana. The policy has four (4) initiatives and nineteen activities all aimed at ensuring effective planning and management of urban growth and sprawl. These initiatives are (i) Ensure that investments and development will consistently and increasingly be directed towards targeted counter-magnet growth areas; (ii) Probe and establish an effective integrated planning system for contiguous greater metropolitan areas, such as Accra/Kumasi/Sekondi-Takoradi, which embrace different political districts, in the light of the provisions of Act 480 (Sections 12, 13, 14) and the Guidelines recommended by the Land Use Planning and Management Project (LUPMP) (See 3.13); (iii) Ensure adoption and implementation/enforcement of relevant recommendations from the LUPMP regarding legislation, development guidelines, planning standards, spatial development frameworks, structure plans, local plans and land use controls; and (iv) Strengthen the use of remote sensing (such as aerial photographs and satellite imageries) and a Geographic Information System (GIS) to enhance urban development and management.

Similarly, in 2015, the National Housing Policy (NHP) was adopted with 8 policy objectives. The 3^rd of these objectives seeks to promote housing schemes that maximizes land utilization. The responsibility for implementing the NHP and its initiative response is on the Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing (MWRWH) through the decentralisation system in Ghana. The policy has six (6) initiative responses all aimed at promoting housing schemes that maximizes land utilization. These initiative responses are (i) Establish and mainstream Inner City Revitalisation and Urban Regeneration programmes in the Development Plans of all MMDAs. This will include the revision of the housing density standards, and the promotion of high rise developments and optimal use of land. The initiative will also enable the remediation of degraded and polluted lands and take measures to maintain the setting and special character of the existing settlements benefiting from the revitalisation and regeneration interventions; (ii) Promote partnerships between property owners and private investors for inner city revitalisation and urban regeneration interventions that utilise land pooling and land readjustment tools; (iii) Promote mixed use property developments and zoning in all neighbourhood upgrading/improvement initiatives in partnership with MMDAs. In this respect, MMDAs shall promote and prioritise the integration of multiple-use functions for properties in inner city locations that help to reduce travel time for residents as well as curtail urban sprawl; (iv) Facilitate the provision of technical assistance at the MMDAs to rationalize existing plot allocations within a framework of an efficient land use, recommending appropriate housing schemes; (v) Secure nature conservation and retain land for agricultural, forestry and related uses as a check on the unrestricted sprawl of large built-up areas and prevent neighbouring towns from merging into one another; and (vi) Institute tax measures and other mechanisms to discourage speculation on residential land and the retention of vacant land in urban and semi-urban areas.

The 1995 National Environmental Policy (NEP) has 11 sectoral environmental policies that address resource-specific strategies. The ninth policy is to foster urban development. The Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI) is responsible for executing the sectoral environmental policies. The sectoral policy has six (6) objectives that govern and direct urban development. These objectives are (i) Plan and control the limit of growth of urban settlements in order to avoid the expansion of “millionaire” cities. (ii) Introduce modern management systems at the national, regional and district capitals. (iii) Incorporate rural-urban migration, land title and environmental health issues into the activities of the National Development Planning Commission. (iv) Reduce the level of waste generation and housing stock shortage and other environmental degradation concerns associated with urban development. (v) Recognize the importance of and help bring about behavioral change through education and public awareness of environmental sanitation problems in order to bring about improved urban environmental conditions as well as the sustainable use and maintenance of sanitation facilities. (vi) create more job opportunities for urban dwellers.

Furthermore, in 2008, the National Transport Policy (NTP) was adopted with 7 policy objectives. The third objective of NTP aims to integrate land use, transport planning, development planning, and service provision. The responsibility for implementing the NTP and its strategies is on the Ministry of Transport (MT) through the decentralisation system in Ghana. The policy has seven (7) strategies all aimed at integrate Land Use, Transport Planning, Development Planning, and Service Provision. These strategies are (i) Establish consultation mechanisms between Transport Sector MDAs, with MLGRDE and MMDAs to implement (a. Integrated Land use and spatial planning; b. Decentralised Management, Financing and Maintenance of local transport infrastructure and services; c. Urban Transport Policy); (ii) Establish consultation mechanisms between Transport Sector MDAs and other Sectoral Ministries; (iii) Produce practical guidelines for development and transport planners to facilitate effective integration; (iv) Ensure proper acquisition and protection of land for transport infrastructure development; (v) Incorporate into master plans of cities, provision of inter and intra-modal and ‘break-bulk’ facilities to improve the transfer of goods and passengers from one mode to another. (vi) In collaboration with the MMDAs, ensure the provision of independently managed lorry parks and other transport interchange facilities to encourage competition and improved customer service; and (vii) Ensure consistent application of the ‘Road Utility Coordination Manual’ by passing appropriate legislation.

The above discourse indicates institutional arrangement for MUDs and sustainable communities differs significantly. The preceding discourse suggests that the institutional arrangement for MUDs and sustainable communities varies considerably. The institutions engaged in urban planning process include Physical Planning Departments, Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies, Lands Commission, Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority, Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, and Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation. Prior to the enactment of the Land Use and Spatial Planning Act, 2016 (Act 925), institutional frameworks exhibited unclear responsibilities, redundant tasks, misaligned roles with organisational capacities, obsolete legislation, and insufficient institutional collaboration

[14]

. The authors noted that the establishment of separate institutional frameworks for land ownership and modern planning has been blamed for obstructing urban planning's capacity to achieve sustainable urban development outcomes. The Town and Country Planning Ordinance, 1945 (CAP 84), Act 462 of 1993 (now Act 936, 2016), and the National Building Regulations (LI 1630) of 1996 (now Building Regulations, LI 2465 of 2022) controlled the process of urban planning, which included mixed-use developments

[119]

. Literature highlights the implementation of many initiatives to tackle urban planning concerns, including the Land Administration Project (LAP) 1&2, the establishment of the National Spatial Development Framework, formulating the National Urban Policy, and developing the land policy

[14]

. The Land Use and Spatial Planning Act of 2016 (Act 925), directs urban planning in Ghana

[120]

. The Act sanctions the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority as the regulatory body responsible for the oversight of settlements and spatial planning in Ghana. The Authority is required collaborate with the National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) to create all-inclusive Long-Term National Spatial Development Plan. The main objective of the National Spatial Development Framework is to ensure the efficient use of land and the fair distribution of national infrastructure and services among different human settlements in Ghana. At the regional level, the Spatial Development Framework (SDF) is developed by the Regional Spatial Planning Committee under the supervision of the Regional Coordinating Council and subsequently endorsed by the NDPC. Similarly, the District Spatial Development Framework (SDF) is established by the District Spatial Planning Committee at the district level and then ratified by the Assembly. The Land Use and Spatial Planning Act in Ghana, as the principal legislation for spatial planning, does not contain a specific provision regarding environmental quality and sustainability. The lack of a specific segment addressing environmental quality and sustainability indicates the inconsistent structure of MUDs in relation to Sustainable Communities.

3. Analytical Framework for Policy Coherence for Creating Sustainable Communities in Ghana

Attaining sustainable communities through MUDs in swiftly urbanising nations such as Ghana relies not only on well-crafted policies but also on institutional coordination, implementation, and adaptation. Although Ghana's National Urban Policy (2012), Housing Policy (2015), and Land Use and Spatial Planning Act, 2016 (Act 925)

[120]

offer strategic direction for urban design and land use integration, the degree to which they facilitate cohesive implementation across various sectors and levels remains uncertain.

To unpack this intricacy, this research adapted the Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework proposed by

[103]

. The framework recognises the importance of institutional arrangements and actor configurations in influencing policy outcomes. Within this structure, the “action arena” includes diverse public, private, and community stakeholders who interact according to established rules and informal norms to influence urban development outcomes. This perspective, when applied to Ghana, reveals that institutional fragmentation, overlapping mandates, and inadequate accountability mechanisms frequently hinder effective urban policy implementation

[48, 148]

This study's analytical framework incorporates five interrelated dimensions:

1) Policy Coherence: The extent to which national, regional, and local policies align to support integrated land use planning, and the degree to which objectives such as affordable housing, environmental sustainability, and accessibility are mutually reinforcing.

2) Institutional Coordination: The effectiveness of collaboration among state actors, including the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority (LUSPA), Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs), and traditional land custodians, in the planning and implementation of mixed-use developments.

3) Land Governance: The alignment of formal land use policies with their execution, including aspects of tenure security, land accessibility, and the oversight of informal land markets.

4) Stakeholder Participation: The degree to which participatory mechanisms enable significant contributions from civil society, local communities, and developers during planning and implementation processes.

5) Sustainable Urban Outcomes: The extent to which mixed-use developments enhance social equity, economic opportunity, and environmental sustainability within urban communities.

Furthermore, the analytical framework enables a detailed assessment of how policy coherence influences MUDs in promoting sustainable communities. In Ghana, while planning frameworks exist, implementation is hindered by administrative delays, limited resources, and institutional conflicts

[148, 2, 74]

. The framework helps identify leverage points for institutional reform and better policy alignment. It has been applied in studies on urban sustainability transitions in Africa and Asia

[139]

. This framework supports integrated, inclusive development by situating MUDs within broader institutional structures. Overall, it offers diagnostic insight for assessing both structural enablers and barriers to sustainable urban growth in Ghana.

4. Conceptual and Theoretical Underpinnings

Recent years have witnessed growing academic interest in policy coherence across sectors

[136]

. Scholars define policy coherence as the alignment and integration of diverse policy goals and actions to avoid contradictions and promote synergies

[41, 96, 116]

. However, incoherence often arises due to political, administrative, and institutional fragmentation

[116, 129]

Policy coherence is essential for sustainable community development, particularly in rapidly urbanising countries like Ghana

[134, 106]

. As urban challenges intensify, MUDs have emerged as a strategic tool to promote sustainability

[130]

, combining residential, commercial, and recreational functions in one space

[143]

. However, effective implementation requires coherent and supportive policies. This study draws on three theoretical frameworks, which are institutional theory, systems theory, and network theory, to explore the mechanisms that shape policy coherence.

Institutional theory emphasises how formal rules, regulations, and informal norms shape policy formulation and implementation

[111]

. Institutions, such as planning agencies and regulatory bodies, influence the consistency and effectiveness of policies

[9, 42, 86]

. Likewise, systems theory views governance and policies as interconnected elements within a larger societal system. It stresses that changes in one sector can affect others, making coordination crucial for avoiding policy contradictions

[100, 79, 65]

. Coherence, therefore, depends on understanding these systemic interdependencies. Similarly, network theory focuses on the relationships among stakeholders involved in policymaking. These include government agencies, non-governmental organisations and civil society actors. The coherence of policies often relies on the strength of communication, trust, and power-sharing within these networks.

Collectively, the three theories provide a holistic lens for analysing policy consistency. Achieving it requires reforming institutional arrangements, enhancing intersectoral coordination, and fostering inclusive stakeholder engagement. This multi-theoretical perspective is especially relevant for guiding the creation of sustainable communities in Ghana and similar contexts.

5. Approach and Methods

5.1. Study Approach

This research used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach (PRISMA 2020) to direct the process of screening and reviewing the literature. Articles and policies related to the creation of sustainable communities and MUDs were searched using Web of Science, Science Direct, and Scopus literature search. Search terms and keywords were used together including urbanisation, sustainable community development, mixed-use planning, land use planning plans implementation, and management in Ghana. The search for relevant literature was conducted using Google Scholar. Relevant literature was also sought by searching the websites of ministries and agencies engaged in land use planning and implementation. In addition, a thorough search of references in all chosen papers was conducted. The bibliography was sought for each retrieved item that discussed the implementation and management of land use plans in Ghana.

Appraising the degree of coherence is essential for attaining policy objectives, since synergies and trade-offs provide both possibilities and difficulties for governance innovation. The study utilized the Policy Coherence for Development (PCD) framework to assess the degree of policy coherence

[14, 96, 63, 136]

. This framework provides the procedural aspect of policy coherence

[96, 68, 63, 55, 116]

. Since the policies being examined in this study are already being implemented and there is less information on how they were developed in Ghana, this study focused on analysing the extant policy documents for coherence, rather than the procedures that were used to create them. Consequently, the study employs the PCD framework via a content analysis

[35]

at various levels.

[116]

assert that the PCD framework has characteristics for evaluating coherence. The authors indicate that, these dimensions include the underlying reasons for the policies (motivations), the specific steps taken to achieve the desired outcomes (measures), the detailed strategy for putting the policies into practice (implementation plan), the necessary resources (resources), and the ongoing monitoring and assessment process (monitoring and evaluation). Understanding the rationale behind the objectives is essential, especially when the policy is seen as a pragmatic strategy like mixed-use development or urban planning

[80]

. According to

[116]

analyzing coherency in the dimensions that influence various policies can provide valuable comprehension of the compromises and collaborations. Regarding action measures, this enables comprehension of the interplay between various policy measures to identify possible conflicts, trade-offs, and synergies

[116]

. Research by

[63]

[96]

and

[136]

has revealed that suggested measures in one policy may have both positive and negative effects when combined with additional measures in other policies. Consequently, it is essential to examine the coherence of action measures to effectively address trade-offs and synergies. Furthermore, the implementation plans enhance understanding of the various stakeholders' roles, interests, synergies, and intersections.

[116]

suggest that implementation plans can offer important insights into potential gaps that may influence policies. The implementation plan delineates the allocation of time, involvement of participants, and activity overlaps with clarity. Trade-offs and synergies in resource allocation may be effectively handled within the implementation plan. Lastly, Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) plans, according to

[136]

provide additional elements for assessing the coherency of policies that are currently being implemented. The M&E plans explicitly identify the actors responsible for each part of the implementation, facilitating the identification of duplicated mandates and ensuring that players are held accountable for both achievements and failures

[116]

. This study examines policy coherence at the national level, specifically analysing the alignment of policy motivation, measures, implementation, resources, and monitoring and evaluation. It focuses on horizontal analysis rather than vertical analysis, which considers distinct and regional levels of governance.

5.2. Methods

A total of seven documents were examined, as shown in Table 1, to ascertain the extent to which policies on sustainable communities and MUDs align in their pursuit of the shared goal of sustainable development. Given the crucial role of MUDs in promoting global sustainability, particularly in their contributions to sustainable communities, it is essential to examine the alignment between MUDs and sustainable communities' policies in terms of policy motivation, measure, implementation, resources, and monitoring and evaluation (M&E). Policy coherence is evident in plans, programmes, and institutional arrangements

[127]

. Hence, content analysis, a commonly used approach

[68, 52]

was used to examine these characteristics of the seven policies listed in Table 1. Within each document, the study analyse the extent to which each factor listed in Table 2 was either explicit, implicit, or not stated and coded accordingly. When we say "explicit" in the context of mixed use planning and sustainable community development, we are referring to the precise information or statements stated in connection to the variable being examined. Implicit refers to the situation when some keywords are stated in connection to the variable being discussed, but the whole statement is not clear or available. For instance, when discussing foreign assistance, such as funding, the document must clearly say that the policy formulation and adoption were financially supported. For implicit, the policy document may indicate international support but it does not specify the nature of the support. Ultimately, in the event that the component is completely omitted, we categorize it as 'not mentioned '. The codes were finally analysed in Excel, categorising them as explicit (a), implicit (b), or not mentioned (c).

For motivation, we assessed each document content to comprehend if five characteristics of motivation are explicit, implicit, or not mentioned at all in these documents. Initially, we examined each document content to see whether all the variables for motivation in Table 2 are explicit, implicit, or not mentioned at all. When these variables are clearly stated (explicit) in all five documents being reviewed, the study concluded that the variables of motivation are coherent. However, in cases where the variables are implicit and not mentioned, it is inferred that there may be a certain level of inconsistency. The study utilised the same methodology for the implementation plan, resource, and monitoring and evaluation. For measure, we conducted a thorough examination of each policy document, employing keywords to identify specific variables within the content. When these variables are present in all the policy documents, we inferred that there is coherence. Conversely, when these variables are not identified, we concluded that there is incoherence.

Table 2. Factors for policy coherence analysis.

Item	Factor	Variable
	Motivation	Drivers for creating sustainable communities:
		Environmental Conservation and Resilience
		Social Equity and Inclusivity
		Economic Prosperity and Innovation
		Smart Urban Planning and Design
		Community Engagement and Participation
	Measures	Mixed-use developments measures identified in policies:
		Encourage compact development
		Reduce urban sprawl
		Promote efficient land use
		Encourage sustainable urbanisation
		Promote safety and security
		Minimize long commute time
		Encourage walking and cycling as sustainable modes of transportation
		Promote physical activity and reducing reliance on cars
		Promote sustainable transportation solutions
		Encourage public spaces that enhance the quality of life
		Support for affordable housing within mixed-use developments
		Enhance local economic development
		Stimulate small business growth
	Implementation plan	Institutional set up, role, and allocation of responsibilities; timeline
	Resources	Financial, human, Investing in accessible and efficient public transportation systems.
	Monitoring and evaluation	Implementation follow up, reporting, exchange of experience, incorporation of new knowledge

Source: Adapted from

[116]

6. Results

Mixed-use development (MUD) in Ghana is considered a planning tool for promoting compact, resilient, and inclusive urban expansion. Nonetheless, the efficacy of MUD in fostering sustainable communities is contingent upon the degree of coherence across national, metropolitan, and local policies. Literature acknowledges that the integration of policies on land use, transportation, housing, environmental concerns, and governance supports the potential of MUD. On the contrary, contradictions and fragmentation in policy implementation weaken its potential to address persistent urban challenges, which include transportation congestion, sprawl, and unfair access to services

[14, 10, 44, 24]

This section presents the results of policy documents reviewed for evaluating the internal and cross-sectoral coherence of seven policies related to urban development. These documents are the NEP, NHP, NTP, NUP, NUPAP, NCCAS, and the NCCP. This study evaluates policy coherence across five interrelated drivers that are critical for sustainable community development: environmental conservation and resilience, social equity and inclusivity, economic prosperity and innovation, smart urban planning and design, and community engagement and participation. These drivers offer a framework for assessing how the existing planning systems support or obstruct the implementation of MUD in Ghana. The results offer a basis for understanding the strengths and weaknesses of Ghana's existing policy framework with direct impact on long-term community development.

6.1. Sustainable Communities Creation and Motivations

The seven national policy documents assessed revealed varying degrees of emphasis on the five key thematic driving variables for creating sustainable communities in Ghana. These variables were assessed based on whether each policy is explicitly or implicitly mentioned or not mentioned, as indicated in Table 3. Out of the seven documents evaluated, the NEP is the only source that provides comprehensive information for creating sustainable communities. The NEP covers four out of five motivating variables, such as economic prosperity and innovation, environmental conservation and resilience, social equity and inclusivity, and community engagement and participation. The NEP demonstrates a comprehensive understanding of environmental considerations, sustainable development and equitable access. However, NEP does not specifically include smart urban planning and design as an independent concept; the ideas and tactics related to smart urban development are often incorporated within the wider goals of environmental management and sustainability described in the policy framework.

Table 3. Driving factors for creating Sustainable Communities.

Factors	NEP	NTP	NUP	NUPAP	NHP	NCCAS	NCCP
Environmental Conservation and Resilience	a	b	a	b	b	b	b
Social Equity and Inclusivity	a	c	c	c	a	c	a
Economic Prosperity and Innovation	a	b	a	b	b	c	a
Smart Urban Planning and Design	b	b	b	b	b	b	a
Community Engagement and Participation	a	c	c	c	a	b	b

a = explicit, b = implicit, c = not mentioned

The review revealed that the NUP and NHP both have two distinct motivating factors. The NUP plays a vital role in advancing the development of sustainable communities nationwide. The NUP advocates for a comprehensive and unified strategy for urban development. It also promotes the implementation of sustainable land use principles that deter urban development and foster efficient land use. Although the NUP and its action plans do not expressly include community involvement and participation as separate elements, they are essential for achieving the overall goals of fostering inclusive, fair, and sustainable urban development in Ghana.

The analysis observed that there is coherency between NEP and NUP, as they both have explicit information about the variables, as shown in Table 3. For instance, two documents explicitly recognise environmental conservation and resilience, whereas others implicitly do not. The coherence between NEP and NUP entails the integration of climate change adaptation and resilience into urban planning and design strategies. For instance, the NUP and NEP have the ability to advance environmentally friendly construction methods and sustainable development concepts in urban areas. Nevertheless, the NUP, NUPAP, and NTP seem to lack consistency in fostering substantial community interaction and participation in decision-making processes.

The review also observed that the NTP, NUP and NUPAP do not have explicit information that addresses the components required for the creation of sustainable communities. The variables in the NTP, NUP and NUPAP documents were either implied or not explicitly stated. The policy documents' inconsistencies are brought to light. The lack of coordination between the NTP and the NUPAP hinders the integration of transport and land use planning initiatives.

Overall, the results indicate a fragmented policy landscape characterised by strong sectoral focusses, such as housing, environment, and transport, yet they exhibit limited coherence across policies in addressing the comprehensive drivers essential for effective implementation. This misalignment highlights the urgent need for policy harmonisation and integration, especially in connecting land use planning, climate policy, housing, and urban development strategies within a cohesive, sustainable community development framework.

6.2. Policy Consistency in Mixed-Use Developments Measures

Drawing from scholarly literature on MUD measures

[34, 78, 82, 83, 131, 133, 149, 151]

, Table 4 presents the seven policy documents that outline strategies for mixed-use developments related to urban areas. The primary MUD measures include reducing urban sprawl, promoting efficient land use, enhancing local economic development, and encouraging compact development. Urban, environmental, and housing policies clearly state all these measures, ensuring their consistency. Likewise, the aforementioned measures were identified in five policy documents (NEP, NHP, NUP, NUPAP, and NTP).

Table 4. Policy Consistency in Mixed-use Developments measures.

Measure	NEP	NTP	NUP	NUPAP	NHP	NCCAS	NCCP
Encourage compact development	I	N	I	N	I	N	I
Reduce urban sprawl	I	N	I	I	I	N	N
Promote efficient land use	I	N	I	I	I	I	I
Encourage sustainable urbanisation	I	N	N	N	I	I	I
Promote safety and security	N	N	I	I	N	N	N
Minimize long commute time	N	N	I	I	I	N	N
Encourage walking and cycling as sustainable modes of transportation	N	I	N	N	N	N	I
Promote physical activity and reducing reliance on cars	N	N	N	N	I	N	N
Promote sustainable transportation solutions	N	I	N	N	N	N	I
Encourage public spaces that enhance the quality of life	N	N	I	N	I	N	N
Support for affordable housing within mixed-use developments	N	N	N	N	I	N	N
Enhance local economic development	I	I	I	I	N	N	N
Stimulate small business growth	I	N	I	N	N	N	N

I = identified, N = Not identified

The review revealed that Ghana's NUP, NUPAP, NEP, NCCAS, NCCP, and NHP documents consistently acknowledge efficient land use as a key strategic objective. These policy documents emphasise the importance of optimising existing land resources to promote sustainable development, environmental preservation, and improved living standards.

Likewise, the review identified enhanced local economic development (LED) as a fundamental approach embedded within Ghana's NEP, NUP, NUPAP, and NTP. These policies have the objective of fostering economic growth at the local level, enhancing living circumstances, and advancing sustainable and equitable development. The analysis reveals that policy coherence between the NUP and the NEP is crucial for promoting compact urban development, curbing urban sprawl, enhancing local economic growth, and fostering the expansion of small businesses.

6.3. Policy Coherence Between NUP and the NHP

Four policy documents, such as NEP, NUP, NHP, and NCCP, were identified encouraging compact development. Likewise, NEP, NHP, NCCAS, and NCCP were identified as promoting sustainable urbanisation. The analysis observed that there is a coherency between the NUP and the NHP in Ghana, both of which support the use of MUDs as an important strategy for encouraging compact development, reducing urban sprawl, and promoting efficient land use.

6.4. Policy Coherence Between NUP and the NEP

The observed policy coherency between NUP and NEP cut across four thematic measures (encourage compact development, reduce urban sprawl, promote efficient land use, and enhance local economic development). The finding suggests that policy consistency between the NUP and the NEP is critical to promoting sustainable urban development and protecting the environment.

6.5. Policy Incoherence Effects on Sustainable Urbanisation

The analysis observed that incoherency between the NTP and the NUP obstructs sustainable urbanisation. Both policies acknowledge the need to foster sustainable cities, but their strategic objectives and implementation methods often diverge. The NTP largely concentrates on enhancing mobility and transport infrastructure without sufficiently incorporating land use planning, while the NUP prioritises compact developments and MUDs with little linkage to transportation sector changes. This mismatch compromises initiatives aimed at developing cohesive, transit-oriented, and ecologically sustainable urban systems.

6.6. Policy Incoherence Effects on Physical Activity and Dependence on Vehicles

Furthermore, the analysis observed policy incoherence between NUP, NTP, NUPAP, NCCAS, NCCP, and NEP with regard to physical activity and dependence on vehicles. The policy incoherence between Ghana's NUP, NTP, and NEP creates substantial obstacles in encouraging physical activity and decreasing dependence on vehicles, which are essential for sustainable urban development and public health. The review indicates that a lack of consistency in urban landscapes is not conducive to walking, cycling, or using public transit; hence, it hinders efforts to create healthier and more sustainable cities.

6.7. Policy Incoherence Effects on Sustainable Transportation Solutions

The analysis revealed that the policy incoherence that exists among NEP, NUP, NUPAP, NHP, and NCCAS adversely affects sustainable transportation solutions. The discrepancy exposes contradictions among government levels, sectors, and temporal priorities. The inconsistency in transport policy generates reinforcing consequences that entrench cities in carbon-intensive trajectories, compromise fairness, and diminish the legitimacy of institutions.

6.8. Policy Incoherence Effects on Affordable Housing Within Mixed-Use Developments

The review also observed considerable policy inconsistency among national documents such as NUPAP, NEP, NTP, NCCAS, NCCP, and NUP in respect of affordable housing within MUDs. These policies demonstrate insufficient congruence regarding strategic direction, implementation frameworks, and the cross-referencing of affordable housing objectives. This lack of coherency hampers efforts to foster inclusive and equitable urban growth. This gap poses a major barrier to enhancing affordable housing as an essential element of sustainable communities via MUDs.

6.9. Policy Coherence in the Implementation

6.9.1. Implementation Plan

The study reveals that the NHP is aligned with six main institutions and specialised entities, but there is no clearly defined lead ministry or agency responsible for implementing the policy for MUDs. Furthermore, other significant policy documents such as the NEP, NUP, NCCAS, NCCP, and NUPAP do not mention any provisions for creating institutional arrangements for coordination, implementation, or supervision of MUDs (see Table 5). This institutional gap underscores a significant deficiency in governance frameworks, potentially obstructing effective cross-sector cooperation and the implementation of sustainable community development frameworks. The assessment also reveals that none of the policies provide specific timelines for the implementation plan of MUDs. Comparing sectoral and urban policies, there is a lack of coherence in terms of community engagement and local governance. This inconsistency in MUDs' policies has adverse implications for the sustainable development of communities.

6.9.2. Resources

The study reveals that several policy documents, such as the NEP, NTP, NCCAS, NCCP, and NHP, do not provide clear details regarding financing sources for implementing MUDs. Likewise, the urban policies such as NUP and NUPAP lack explicit directives or frameworks for funding their articulated urban development objectives. The lack of financial planning provisions is a significant deficiency, as the effective implementation of MUDs requires well-defined and sustainable finance arrangements. The analysis also observed that none of the policies specifically address the allocation of human resources required to implement MUDs. This results in a lack of consistency in the policies for the development of human resources capabilities in MUDs.

Table 5. Implementation process of Mixed-use developments.

FACTOR	NEP	NTP	NUP	NUPAP	NHP	NCCAS	NCCP
Implementation plan
Institutional set up	c	a	C	c	a	c	c
Allocation of responsibilities	c	b	B	b	a	c	c
Timeline	c	c	C	c	c	c	c
Community engagement and local governance	c	c	c	c	b	c	c
Resources
Financial	c	c	c	c	c	c	c
Human	c	c	C	b	b	c	c
Monitoring and evaluation
Implementation follows up	c	b	C	c	c	c	c
Reporting	c	c	C	c	c	c	c

a = explicit, b = implicit, c = not mentioned

6.9.3. Monitoring and Evaluation

Among the seven policy documents examined, only NTP provides more detailed information on monitoring and evaluation (M&E), particularly concerning the implementation and assessment of MUDs. The remaining policy documents do not expressly reference M&E. These limitations across the wider policy framework reflect a significant deficiency in ensuring responsibility, monitoring of performance, and adaptive learning in the management of sustainable community development.

7. Discussion

This study examined the effects of policy coherence on the creation of sustainable communities through mixed-use developments (MUDs) in Ghana. The study findings indicate significant disparities in Ghana's national policy framework regarding its engagement with the essential drivers of sustainable communities. The five motivating variables, such as environmental conservation and resilience, social equity and inclusivity, economic prosperity and innovation, smart urban planning and design, and community engagement and participation, are acknowledged as critical for attaining integrated and sustainable community development

[40, 67, 87, 126]

. However, the examined policy documents' representation of these variables is both disjunctive and inconsistently prioritised. The absence of consistent emphasis not only indicates the sectoral focus of policy development in Ghana but also reveals a significant deficiency in the institutional coordination required to foster multifunctional urban configurations. The results highlight the complex ways in which disjointed and inconsistent policy frameworks hinder sustainable urbanisation, transportation, affordable housing, and equitable community development.

7.1. Sustainable Urbanisation

The inconsistencies in Ghana's National Urban Policy (NUP) and National Transport Policy (NTP) significantly compromise the ambition for sustainable urbanisation. The NUP advocates for compact, mixed-use, and resilient communities. In contrast, the NTP continues to prioritise road expansion and motorisation as key drivers of economic development

[20]

. This incoherence has solidified car-dependent sprawl, and dissuaded investment in mass transportation

[5]

. The expansion of unsustainable settlements has been ecologically reinforced

[23]

. The repercussions are apparent in escalating congestion, suboptimal land use patterns, and environmental deterioration which together hinder Ghana's capacity to synchronise its urbanisation trajectory with global sustainability objectives.

The inconsistency in governance perpetuates unequal access to urban possibilities

[97]

. Automobile-centric policies favour private car owners, marginalising low-income individuals’ dependent on public transportation, walks, and cycling

[1]

. In places like Accra and Kumasi, this disparity has intensified socio-spatial inequality by limiting affordable housing near job centres, worsening pollution, and deteriorating air quality

[7, 132]

. In the absence of integrated governance, the potential for socially inclusive and transit-oriented urbanisation is severely limited, highlighting the need to include sustainable mobility as a fundamental goal within Ghana's overarching urban policy framework

[29]

7.2. Physical Activity and Vehicle Dependence

The policy inconsistencies between Ghana's NUP, NTP, and NEP create substantial obstacles to physical activity, and decrease dependence on vehicles. These conflicts congealed motorisation, and undermined the development of walkable and pedestrian-friendly surroundings. The NUP advances the development of compact and dynamic communities

[125, 49]

, and the NTP's vehicle-centric goal perpetuates traffic congestion and air pollution. Likewise, the NEP sustainability objectives are inadequately incorporated into transport planning. The resulting urban designs hinder walking and cycling, thereby diminishing opportunities for daily physical activity and intensifying public health risks

[124]

This inconsistency also exhibits disparities in mobility. Affluent families benefit from vehicle ownership, while disadvantaged populations face unsafe, polluted, and inadequately maintained transportation conditions

[11]

. The health consequences are significant: sedentary lifestyles and increasing exposure to vehicle pollutants have exacerbated the prevalence of non-communicable illnesses, disproportionately impacting disadvantaged groups

[1, 94, 132]

. Without harmonising transport, urban, and environmental policies, Ghana risks entrenching its cities in inequitable and health-deteriorating mobility patterns, that jeopardise its climate and sustainability promises. Hence, efficiently integrating public transit with forms of active transport is crucial for lessening dependence on cars and encouraging physical activity

[4]

7.3. Sustainable Transportation Solutions

The disjuncture across urban, transport, and environmental frameworks, also hinders the development of sustainable transport systems. The NUP emphasises compact, pedestrian-friendly developments but the NTP persists in promoting road growth, and the NEP's ecological principles are inadequately incorporated into practice. The governance inconsistency perpetuates congestion, air pollution, and reliance on private automobiles, while sidelining investments in pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure

[10, 24]

. Furthermore, incoherence converts potential interventions into exclusionary results. The Accra Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) project, designed to improve mobility did not provide fair advantages. As it lacks integration of housing or land-use policies, resulting in speculative land development and the marginalisation of low-income groups

[7]

. Promoting low-emission mobility without aligning with energy-sector reforms may only transfer, rather than alleviate, environmental responsibilities. Likewise, skewed investment on public transport systems and non-motorized transport choices exacerbates automobile reliance, traffic congestion, and higher greenhouse gas emissions, hampering efforts to promote sustainable transportation solutions

[107, 69]

. These instances illustrate how fragmented governance converts sustainability initiatives into incomplete and unequal outcomes. Integrating transport into a cohesive multi-sectoral framework is essential for promoting equitable urban mobility and enhancing climate resilience.

7.4. Affordable Housing and Mixed-Use Developments

The lack of consistency, among Ghana's urban policies has a major influence on promoting affordable housing within MUDs which is a planning strategy for sustainable urbanisation. The presence of competing agendas and a dearth of coordination among various policies might compromise, the achievement of these objectives. The NEP prioritises sustainable land use and natural resource conservation by promoting initiatives that minimise their negative effects on the environment. Nevertheless, the NTP often provides preference to, the advancement of road infrastructure, a tendency that might result in urban sprawl and the deterioration of the environment. This sprawl may intrude upon land, that might otherwise be used for the construction of cost-effective dwellings within MUDs that combine several types of land use. This fragmentation perpetuates discriminatory and ecologically unsustainable housing results. The absence of environmental factors into transportation planning undermines efforts to provide affordable and sustainable housing

[12]

The prevalence of market-driven MUDs in Accra and Kumasi demonstrates how governance inconsistencies favour elite housing while marginalising low-income populations

[7]

. Without integrated frameworks connecting housing, climate resilience, and transportation, MUDs are likely to perpetuate inequality instead of promoting diversity. To achieve equitable and sustainable housing requires the integration of affordable housing policies with broader urban, transportation, and climate initiatives, ensuring that MUDs function as tools for social inclusion rather than exclusion.

7.5. Resource Constraints, Implementation Deficits, and Weak Monitoring & Evaluation

Beyond policy misalignment, institutional governance deficiencies exacerbate difficulties of sustainable urbanisation in Ghana. Persistent underfunding deficiencies in human resources and limited technical proficiency, have hindered agencies' capacity to execute sustainable housing, transportation, and resilience initiatives

[44, 22]

. These institutional gaps not only hinder progress but also perpetuate fragmented donor-driven solutions instead of cohesive, long-term development strategies. Notwithstanding, monitoring and evaluation (M&E) mechanisms inadequacies pose some challenges

[118]

. Systematic performance monitoring also diminished accountability, obstructed adaptive policymaking, and solidified short-term measures over cohesive strategic planning

[148]

. In the absence of comprehensive monitoring and evaluation, Ghana's urban institutions find it challenging to convert sustainability rhetoric into actionable practices, or to derive lessons from policy failures. Hence, improving resource mobilisation, tackling implementation gaps, and establishing monitoring and evaluation systems are essential steps for embedding sustainability and equity in Ghana's urbanisation.

7.6. Sustainable Community Development

The study's findings reveal that policy inconsistencies and governance shortcomings significantly obstruct Ghana's capacity to achieve sustainable community development. Inconsistencies across urban, transportation, housing, environmental, and climatic policies perpetuate disjointed, inequitable, and ecologically detrimental growth paths. These results illustrate overarching criticisms of urban government in Sub-Saharan Africa, where fragmented institutions, inadequate inter-sectoral cooperation, and resource limitations hinder comprehensive sustainability planning

[13, 50]

For Ghana, promoting sustainable community development requires institutional changes that enhance coordination across many levels and sectors, include affordability and inclusion within urban frameworks, and establish strong accountability systems. By harmonising policy objectives with implementation, Ghana can reconcile economic advancement, social equity, and environmental conservation, enabling its cities to fulfil both national development goals and global sustainability obligations.

8. Implications for Sustainable Community Development

The study’s outcomes reveal that policy incoherencies have implications for the creation of sustainable community development. The implications include fragmented development efforts, governance challenges, environmental degradation, inefficient transportation systems, social inequity and exclusion, vulnerability to climate change and plan implementation challenges.

8.1. Fragmented Development Efforts

The findings indicate that Ghana’s policy inconsistencies create fragmented development efforts. The disjointed development initiatives undermine the cohesion of housing, land use, and infrastructure, resulting in urban sprawl and fragmented growth patterns

[90, 19]

. This erodes community cohesiveness and hinders fair access to basic services

[112]

. The situation also constrains the ability of cities like Accra and Kumasi to develop into inclusive and resilient urban environments

[46]

. These manifestations of fragmentation disrupt the processes of planning and create uneven regulatory frameworks, leading to ineffective implementation

[109, 2, 14, 108]

. In effect, resulting in resource limitations and less outcomes. Addressing the aforementioned fragmented development efforts will require cohesive regulatory frameworks, increased inter-agency coordination, and unified planning methodologies to achieve sustainable community development in Ghana.

8.2. Governance Challenges

The study’s findings reveal that governance challenges exacerbate institutional fragmentation, restricting accountability and undermining enforcement measures. The observed conflicting mandates between national and local authorities repeatedly result in competition instead of collaboration. Socially, governance difficulties perpetuate marginalised groups' exclusions. This situation also denies marginalised groups access to services and decision-making processes. Urban literature acknowledges that political influence in planning choices sometimes compromises technocratic processes

[57]

. This erodes long-term sustainability benefits

[13]

. Evidence from the Global South highlights governance deficiencies as critical contributors to policy failure

[115, 25]

. Conversely, several studies argue that integrated and collaborative strategies that unify policies across many planning levels may provide synergistic advantages

[30, 153, 40]

. However, the decentralised planning procedures in the SSA often overlook sustainable communities and MUD strategies

[2, 45]

. Addressing these governance challenges requires strengthening inter-institutional collaboration and enhancing the capacity of MMDAs in Ghana.

8.3. Environmental Degradation

The study reveals that inconsistent policies make environmental damage much worse and threaten the attainment of sustainable community development. The failure to align environmental and urban development policies directly leads to environmental deterioration

[1, 98]

. This undermines the ecological underpinnings essential for sustainable communities. The invasion of wetlands and floodplains for residential and commercial development has heightened flood risks, diminished green space, and degraded air and water quality

[15, 18, 52]

. This deterioration reduces liveability and undermines community resilience to environmental shocks. To tackle these deficiencies, an integrated policy framework is required to align environmental governance, enhance inter-agency cooperation, and implement consistent laws to promote sustainable, resilient, and equitable community development in Ghana.

8.4. Inefficient Transportation Systems

The observed policy incoherence in Ghana results in ineffective transportation systems, which significantly impact the sustainable development of communities. This fragmentation and inefficient transport system are attributed to the absence of coordination and harmonisation among policies pertaining to transportation, urban planning, and environmental sustainability. Similarly, the disconnection between transportation policy and spatial planning exacerbates carbon emissions and perpetuates socio-spatial disparities

[3]

. Likewise, disjointed planning leads to urban sprawl, traffic congestion, and the wasteful utilisation of resources

[44, 10, 24]

. Hence, a more consistent and coordinated policy approach is needed to address the inefficiencies in transportation systems and ensure efficient, equitable, and sustainable community development in Ghana.

8.5. Social Inequity and Exclusion

The study reveals that the inconsistencies in Ghana’s policies deepen social inequity and exclusion in cities. The absence of congruence and synchronisation of social, economic, and urban development policies results in unequal availability of resources, services, and opportunities. Hence, it intensifies inequality and marginalisation. The prevalence of housing inequities accelerates the growth of informal settlements and slums

[28]

. Likewise, the policy contradictions result in essential infrastructure scarcity, tenure insecurity, and non-political representation, factors that undermine social sustainability

[7]

. Inequities in healthcare access lead to substantial health disparities, lessening the overall health and welfare of the population. Addressing the social inequity and exclusion mentioned above will require improving the coordination and integration of policies across various sectors. These improvements will lead to access to resources and opportunities, create social inclusion, and construct more resilient and sustainable communities.

8.6. Vulnerability to Climate Change

The observed policy inconsistencies in Ghana worsens the country's vulnerability to climate change, resulting in a considerable negative effect on the development of sustainable communities. The absence of coordinated and unified policies addressing climate adaptation and mitigation across various sectors leads to inadequate responses to climate threats and weakens community resilience. The study reveals that Ghana’s climate change policies are often fragmented, with various sectors and levels of government having separate strategies

[14]

. The lack of synergy and coordination among the various ministries and agencies observed hampers the effectiveness of climate adaptation and mitigation efforts

[14]

. Similarly, the policy inconsistencies pose obstacles to the establishment of climate resilience and the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions, both of which are essential for achieving sustainable development

[31]

. Notwithstanding, the economic repercussions impede the pace of development and worsen poverty

[81]

. Likewise, climatic effects have a disproportionate effect on vulnerable populations, such as low-income groups, women, and children

[93, 105]

. Furthermore, settlements persist in encroaching into flood-prone areas. However, efforts to mitigate disaster risks remain inadequately synchronised with land use regulations and infrastructure planning, as evidenced by Accra’s recurrent flooding

[21, 23]

. Also, research has demonstrated that poorly planned land use and urban development are factors that contribute to environmental deterioration

[154, 56]

. To mitigate vulnerability and promote sustainable community development, it is crucial to improve coordination among key authorities, include climate resilience in land use and urban planning, and integrate climate policy into national and local development plans.

8.7. Plan Implementation Challenges

The inconsistencies Ghana’s urban policies exacerbate resource limitations, implementation difficulties, and inadequate monitoring and evaluation (M&E). Likewise, the district assemblies sometimes lack the requisite financial, technical, and human resources to execute policies successfully

[85]

. Similarly, land tenure conflicts, bureaucratic redundancies, and ephemeral political priorities impede the execution of well-conceived plans. Finally, weak M&E systems and inadequate data collection in cities suggest that lessons are not documented to effect policy reviews, which leads to a cycle of recurring inefficiencies

[6]

9. Limitations

This study offers significant insights into the coherence and strategic alignment of national policy frameworks for creating sustainable communities through MUDs in Ghana. However, the authors acknowledge the numerous limitations of this study. Firstly, the study only examined nine national policy documents. Although these documents constitute the core instruments for shaping urban development in Ghana, the omission of regional and municipal planning documents may neglect subnational discrepancies in implementation and contextual responsiveness. Future research may benefit from employing a multilevel governance approach that incorporates the perspectives of district and local governments. Secondly, the study used a qualitative content analysis method, focusing on document review and thematic coding. This approach facilitates the systematic analysis of textual data but is inherently susceptible to researcher bias in coding decisions and theme categorisation. Despite attempts to maintain analytical rigour through iterative coding and theme triangulation, the data may nevertheless exhibit subjective interpretations. Thirdly, the lack of empirical validation via stakeholder interviews, institutional evaluations, or implementation audits restricts the capacity to ascertain the practical manifestation of these policy inconsistencies. Perspectives from planning authorities, implementing agencies, and urban dwellers would provide a more thorough comprehension of institutional dynamics and implementation difficulties. Lastly, the study concentrated solely on policy coherence concerning five predefined sustainability drivers. Although they align with established worldwide standards, other factors such as cultural context, political will, and historical land use practices may also substantially affect sustainable community development and should be explored in future research.

10. Conclusions

This study investigates the role of MUDs in promoting sustainable communities, highlighting their capacity to promote urban land use efficiency, encourage compact development, reduce urban sprawl, enhance local economic development, encourage sustainable urbanisation, social equity and inclusivity, and environmental sustainability. The results reveal that MUDs, when supported by cohesive governance and context-sensitive planning, promote compact development and socially dynamic communities. However, the urban planning challenges, such as policy fragmentation, financial constraint, puny institutional alignment, and restricted public engagement, persistently hinder their transformational potential. Furthermore, the findings validate the argument that the fragmentation and incoherence between policies for sustainable communities and MUDs pose planning and governance challenges and may hinder the attainment of Sustainable Development Goal 11 in cities across SSA. Likewise, the results advance current debates on urban policy coherence and sustainable development in the Global South. They demonstrate that attaining sustainability requires harmonising fragmented policy environments with governance structures more than adopting global planning models.

This research theoretically contributes to urban planning and sustainable development studies by contextualising MUDs within a multidimensional sustainability framework. It demonstrates how governance structures and power dynamics influence socio-environmental outcomes. It also offers a framework for implementing MUDs via policy alignment, use of performance-oriented planning instruments, climate-resilient urban design, and inclusive participatory methodologies.

Finally, this study shows the significance of policy integration theory and institutional capacity frameworks in identifying implementation challenges for sustainable community development. The insight gained can help urban policymakers, planners, and institutional stakeholders use a diagnostic tool to discover coordination failures, regulatory redundancies, and capacity shortfalls that hinder the efficacy of existing urban strategies. Future research should focus on the political dimensions of policy coherence and the role of MUDs in attaining sustainable communities in SSA cities.

Abbreviations

CD	Community Development
IAD	Institutional Analysis and Development
MUD	Mixed-Use Development
PCD	Policy Coherence for Development
PCSD	Policy Coherence for Sustainable Development
SDG	Sustainable Development Goal
SSA	Sub-Saharan Africa

Approval for Ethical Compliance

No ethical principles were violated in the preparation of this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Afful, D. S., Poku-Boansi, M., Doe, B., Asibey, M. O. (2025). Policy Coherence for the Creation of Sustainable Communities Through Mixed Use Developments in Ghana: Implications for Sustainable Community Development. International Journal of Systems Engineering, 9(2), 33-55. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13

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Afful, D. S.; Poku-Boansi, M.; Doe, B.; Asibey, M. O. Policy Coherence for the Creation of Sustainable Communities Through Mixed Use Developments in Ghana: Implications for Sustainable Community Development. Int. J. Syst. Eng. 2025, 9(2), 33-55. doi: 10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13

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Afful DS, Poku-Boansi M, Doe B, Asibey MO. Policy Coherence for the Creation of Sustainable Communities Through Mixed Use Developments in Ghana: Implications for Sustainable Community Development. Int J Syst Eng. 2025;9(2):33-55. doi: 10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13

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@article{10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13,
  author = {David Sam Afful and Michael Poku-Boansi and Benjamin Doe and Michael Osei Asibey},
  title = {Policy Coherence for the Creation of Sustainable Communities Through Mixed Use Developments in Ghana: Implications for Sustainable Community Development
},
  journal = {International Journal of Systems Engineering},
  volume = {9},
  number = {2},
  pages = {33-55},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijse.20250902.13},
  abstract = {This research investigated the extent of policy consistency in Ghana's national urban planning policy documents and development framework. It highlights the role of urban policies in enabling the implementation of sustainable communities. Adopting a qualitative content analysis method, the study analyses strategic alignment of seven policy documents using the PCD framework that focused on five drivers of sustainable communities, namely environmental conservation and resilience, social equity and inclusivity, economic prosperity and innovation, smart urban planning and design, and community engagement and participation. The Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework enabled the identification of alignment, fragmentation, and conflict across policy instruments and governance structures. The findings show some degree of policy coherence in promoting land use efficiency, minimising urban sprawl, fostering compact developments, and boosting local economic growth. However, significant gaps persist. These gaps include the absence of explicitly stated institutional mandates for the implementation of MUD, misalignment between urban and transportation policies, and social injustice and exclusion. Furthermore, the study divulges that the cross-referencing of policy documents is inadequate, resulting in disjointed implementation, fragmented development efforts and governance challenges. The study concludes that the inconsistencies in Ghana's national urban policies significantly impede the attainment of sustainable community development prospects.
},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Policy Coherence for the Creation of Sustainable Communities Through Mixed Use Developments in Ghana: Implications for Sustainable Community Development

AU  - David Sam Afful
AU  - Michael Poku-Boansi
AU  - Benjamin Doe
AU  - Michael Osei Asibey
Y1  - 2025/09/25
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13
T2  - International Journal of Systems Engineering
JF  - International Journal of Systems Engineering
JO  - International Journal of Systems Engineering
SP  - 33
EP  - 55
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2640-4230
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13
AB  - This research investigated the extent of policy consistency in Ghana's national urban planning policy documents and development framework. It highlights the role of urban policies in enabling the implementation of sustainable communities. Adopting a qualitative content analysis method, the study analyses strategic alignment of seven policy documents using the PCD framework that focused on five drivers of sustainable communities, namely environmental conservation and resilience, social equity and inclusivity, economic prosperity and innovation, smart urban planning and design, and community engagement and participation. The Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework enabled the identification of alignment, fragmentation, and conflict across policy instruments and governance structures. The findings show some degree of policy coherence in promoting land use efficiency, minimising urban sprawl, fostering compact developments, and boosting local economic growth. However, significant gaps persist. These gaps include the absence of explicitly stated institutional mandates for the implementation of MUD, misalignment between urban and transportation policies, and social injustice and exclusion. Furthermore, the study divulges that the cross-referencing of policy documents is inadequate, resulting in disjointed implementation, fragmented development efforts and governance challenges. The study concludes that the inconsistencies in Ghana's national urban policies significantly impede the attainment of sustainable community development prospects.

VL  - 9
IS  - 2
ER  -

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Author Information

David Sam Afful

Department of Planning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

Biography: David Sam Afful is a doctoral student at the Department of Planning of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana pursuing Development Studies. He conceptualized the research proposal under the supervision of Department of Planning. The first version of the manuscript was put together by David. The Department of Planning supervised the development and revision of the first draft manuscript and made substantial contributions to the subsequent modifications. His research interests include sustainable community development, mixed-use development and urban sustainability, urban studies, urban governance and collaborative planning, community engagement and empowerment, and public safety in the built environment.

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0479-3661
Michael Poku-Boansi

Department of Planning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

Biography: Michael Poku-Boansi is as a Professor at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana. He is an Urban/Transport Planner and Resettlement Specialist, currently serving as the Director of the School of Graduate Studies. His research interests among others include spatial planning, land use change, urbanism, and urban transportation planning.

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4929-0961
Benjamin Doe

Department of Planning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

Biography: Benjamin Doe serves as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Planning at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) in Kumasi, Ghana. He is a seasoned planner, researcher, and lecturer with extensive expertise in engaging with regional and municipal governments, community-based organisations, and non-governmental organisations. His research interests include urban and regional planning, the application of geospatial technologies in urban planning and management, and governance related to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH).

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8840-9673
Michael Osei Asibey

Department of Planning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

Biography: Michael Osei Asibey serves as a Lecturer in the Department of Planning at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) in Kumasi, Ghana. He has authored over 40 journal articles, predominantly in esteemed journals such as Geoforum, Cities, Local Environment, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, Energy, and Land Use Policy, in the area of human geography, urban planning, and environmental/ecological management and development. His research concentrates on three main themes of theoretical and practical significance: urbanisation; environmental and ecological management and sustainability; sustainable cities and urban containment; informality; climate change adaptation and resilience; and the conservation and infrastructure of urban greenery.

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5534-2695

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Afful, D. S., Poku-Boansi, M., Doe, B., Asibey, M. O. (2025). Policy Coherence for the Creation of Sustainable Communities Through Mixed Use Developments in Ghana: Implications for Sustainable Community Development. International Journal of Systems Engineering, 9(2), 33-55. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13

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ACS Style

Afful, D. S.; Poku-Boansi, M.; Doe, B.; Asibey, M. O. Policy Coherence for the Creation of Sustainable Communities Through Mixed Use Developments in Ghana: Implications for Sustainable Community Development. Int. J. Syst. Eng. 2025, 9(2), 33-55. doi: 10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13

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AMA Style

Afful DS, Poku-Boansi M, Doe B, Asibey MO. Policy Coherence for the Creation of Sustainable Communities Through Mixed Use Developments in Ghana: Implications for Sustainable Community Development. Int J Syst Eng. 2025;9(2):33-55. doi: 10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13

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@article{10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13,
  author = {David Sam Afful and Michael Poku-Boansi and Benjamin Doe and Michael Osei Asibey},
  title = {Policy Coherence for the Creation of Sustainable Communities Through Mixed Use Developments in Ghana: Implications for Sustainable Community Development
},
  journal = {International Journal of Systems Engineering},
  volume = {9},
  number = {2},
  pages = {33-55},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijse.20250902.13},
  abstract = {This research investigated the extent of policy consistency in Ghana's national urban planning policy documents and development framework. It highlights the role of urban policies in enabling the implementation of sustainable communities. Adopting a qualitative content analysis method, the study analyses strategic alignment of seven policy documents using the PCD framework that focused on five drivers of sustainable communities, namely environmental conservation and resilience, social equity and inclusivity, economic prosperity and innovation, smart urban planning and design, and community engagement and participation. The Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework enabled the identification of alignment, fragmentation, and conflict across policy instruments and governance structures. The findings show some degree of policy coherence in promoting land use efficiency, minimising urban sprawl, fostering compact developments, and boosting local economic growth. However, significant gaps persist. These gaps include the absence of explicitly stated institutional mandates for the implementation of MUD, misalignment between urban and transportation policies, and social injustice and exclusion. Furthermore, the study divulges that the cross-referencing of policy documents is inadequate, resulting in disjointed implementation, fragmented development efforts and governance challenges. The study concludes that the inconsistencies in Ghana's national urban policies significantly impede the attainment of sustainable community development prospects.
},
 year = {2025}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Policy Coherence for the Creation of Sustainable Communities Through Mixed Use Developments in Ghana: Implications for Sustainable Community Development

AU  - David Sam Afful
AU  - Michael Poku-Boansi
AU  - Benjamin Doe
AU  - Michael Osei Asibey
Y1  - 2025/09/25
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13
T2  - International Journal of Systems Engineering
JF  - International Journal of Systems Engineering
JO  - International Journal of Systems Engineering
SP  - 33
EP  - 55
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2640-4230
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijse.20250902.13
AB  - This research investigated the extent of policy consistency in Ghana's national urban planning policy documents and development framework. It highlights the role of urban policies in enabling the implementation of sustainable communities. Adopting a qualitative content analysis method, the study analyses strategic alignment of seven policy documents using the PCD framework that focused on five drivers of sustainable communities, namely environmental conservation and resilience, social equity and inclusivity, economic prosperity and innovation, smart urban planning and design, and community engagement and participation. The Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework enabled the identification of alignment, fragmentation, and conflict across policy instruments and governance structures. The findings show some degree of policy coherence in promoting land use efficiency, minimising urban sprawl, fostering compact developments, and boosting local economic growth. However, significant gaps persist. These gaps include the absence of explicitly stated institutional mandates for the implementation of MUD, misalignment between urban and transportation policies, and social injustice and exclusion. Furthermore, the study divulges that the cross-referencing of policy documents is inadequate, resulting in disjointed implementation, fragmented development efforts and governance challenges. The study concludes that the inconsistencies in Ghana's national urban policies significantly impede the attainment of sustainable community development prospects.

VL  - 9
IS  - 2
ER  -

Copy | Download