1. Introduction
Throughout history, humans have been in the business of moving from one place to the other for different reasons. From the worldwide expansion of hominids departing from Africa million years ago, to the actual massive migrations of populations, humans have demonstrated that settling is as intrinsic to our nature as it is changing our residence. But this natural impulse has been limited since the establishment of States, Kingdoms and Empires
. People relocate in search of greener pastures, better environment and strive to settle where there is peace. These desires are as old as human existence. In traditional Africa and elsewhere, people for reason of hunting and farming tend to leave their indigenous communities for another in the believe that, the new environment will help them flourish in their trade. This push and pull factors have not fundamentally changed even in the contemporary times, as migration is an intrinsic part of social change
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At the global level, mass migration started with slavery driven by capital accumulation in the world’s system core. Beginning in the 16
th Century, European merchants, starting mainly with merchants from Portugal, initiated the transatlantic slave trade. Few traders ventured far inland, attempting to avoid tropical diseases and violence
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[3]
. It was a pattern of migration that was one-sided to the advantage of the Europeans because they didn’t settle in Africa and other parts of the world to contribute to development. They mostly purchased imprisoned Africans and exported commodities including gold and ivory from West African Kingdoms, transporting them to Europe. These merchants were sources of desired goods including guns, gunpowder, copper, manilas and clothes, and this demand for imported goods drove local wars and other means to the enslavement of Africans in ever greater number.
However, the condition of Agriculture with increasing socioeconomic complexities offered greater opportunity for mass migration in the name of Chattel Slavery. It was estimated that over 12.8 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic over a span of 400 years. The number purchased by the traders was considerably higher, as the passage had a high death rate, with between 1.2 and 2.4 million dying during the voyage, and million more in seasoning camps in the Caribbean after arrival in the New World. In the whole, Africa’s development was said to be arrested by slavery as the abled men and women that would have transformed and repositioned the continent on the path of sustainable growth and development were shipped to Europe and America
| [4] | Rodney, W (1972) How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. London, Bogle-L’Ouverture. |
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Therefore, Trans-Atlantic slave trade was one of the first mass migrations, driven by capital accumulation in the pre-industrial era. From the extraction of raw materials to food production in the colonies, as well as any other work done by slaves–until their trade was forbidden in the 19th century–everything was oriented to the core’s accumulation
. Hence, African slaves represented the cheaper workforce that core states could employ to work, as a huge part of the accumulation process relied on their unpaid work (that maximized production’s surplus value) and this provoked the forced migration of millions people from Africa to the Americas. No other previous mass migration movement can be explained by economic reasons in a world-system perspective.
Nevertheless, when slavery as a system of migration and exploitation lost its shine and sheen, another pernicious migration pattern was introduced colonization, which was the product of Industrial Revolution of the 18
th and 19
th Centuries. This represented the second capitalist-driven mass migration in the system’s core. In Europe, the revolution propelled the Europeans in search of cheap labor and raw materials to look majorly, towards Africa and Asia again. This period saw the opposite of slavery in terms of migration, as the Europeans themselves came to settle in Africa and elsewhere, in search of agricultural and mineral resources. Colonization itself was a system of economic exploitation, political domination, social exclusion and segregation of the majority of indigenous population by the few Europeans
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Till today, the continent of Africa and Asia particularly have not remained the same due to so many capitalists’ distortions and crises engendered by colonization and imperialism, reducing these continents to paupers by the agents of global capitalist expansion in what Samir Amin (1992) captured very vividly as ‘Empire of Chaos’
| [6] | Amin, S (1992) Empire of Chaos. Monthly Review Press. |
[6]
. Colonization introduced a system of education; good enough to teach the indigenous people how to read and write in order to support the colonial state. Functional and vocational education was not emphasized. In the area of infrastructure, roads and rail lines were constructed from the hinterland to the sea to help in the evacuation of cash crops and solid minerals
| [7] | Ake C, (2002) A Political Economy of Africa, Nigeria. Long Man Inc. |
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. It’s a fact that Africa and all the colonial states were impoverished by colonization and were reduced to what Fanon (1965) christened as the ‘Wretched of the Earth’
| [8] | Frantz, Fanon (1965) The Wretched of the Earth. GB, Penguin Books. |
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. Leaders were recruited and corrupted to do the bidding of the colonizers, planting seeds of discord among the people who were hitherto, united by common ancestry and history. At independence, the people were left drier and agents of the colonizers masquerading as leaders were handed over the affairs of the state, without a solid economic base
| [9] | Ake C, (2003) Democracy and Development in Africa. Ibadan, Spectrum Books Limited. |
[9]
. Subscribing to this, Alavi (1972) described the post-colonial state as an ‘over-developed’ state in relation to the economic structure on the ground which was underdeveloped
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Therefore, in the 1960’s through to the 1970’s, African leaders and the Global South countries generally, struggled to take charge of their economies, to reposition their various states on the path of sustainable growth and development. This desire did not yield any positive outcome because the state lacked the means of production which is fundamental for development to take place
| [9] | Ake C, (2003) Democracy and Development in Africa. Ibadan, Spectrum Books Limited. |
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. Economies of these societies began to suffer, making it impossible to meet the yearnings and aspirations of the people. Different economic policies were introduced by the global financial institutions from the 1970’s to the 1980’s, some of which included the Structural Adjustment Programme SAP, whose objective was the liberation and general privatization of the economy in order to salvage the situation, yet the economies of the Global South societies continued to tank as poverty and lack, unemployment, ignorance, disease, balance of payment and trade deficits as well as general underdevelopment became major problems confronting the leaders. In the whole therefore, SAP was a disaster. These economic prescriptions by the World Bank and IMF, sank Africa and most of Asian countries into deeper quagmires, and the easy way out of this by many African and Asian youths was to escape to Europe and America where opportunities abound, even without the necessary documents thereby, generating serious global migration crisis. Therefore, globalization which represents another phase of capital accumulation by owners of global capital has succeeded in shrinking the world into a global village, connecting different regions of the world and making borders almost less important, thereby encouraging mass global migration both regular and irregular in the global system. Also, globalization has made modern migration relatively easy, but with consequences which include irregular migration with all its dangers, the spread of disease which is so common, and the rise of criminals who encourage international organized crimes in the global system.
However, this paper is divided into several parts. Part one is an introduction. Part two analyzes theoretical framework and part three discusses modern migration and globalization alongside their prospects and challenges as they relate to public health concern, international organized crimes and irregular migration in Global South. Part four is conclusion and recommendations.
3. Modern Migration in a Globalized World: Prospects and Challenges
There’s no doubt that modern migration is driven by globalization. Globalization has engendered close international integration of markets both for goods, services and for capital. This phenomenon is driven by the revolution in telecommunications which has contributed to the ‘death of distance’ as virtually instantaneous communications are possible nearly everywhere
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| [14] | International Monetary Fund (IMF) (2005) World Economic Outlook, April (2005) Washington D.C. |
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Globalization has possibilities and problems. On the one hand, globalization is uniting the world and generating unprecedented wealth. Hence, globalization has brought many benefits, including the reduction of poverty in several countries of the world
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. On the other hand, globalization is also making national boundaries less important, thereby encouraging migration, both regular and irregular, generating insecurity as a result of the melting borders, poverty as a result of inequality, and unemployment as a result of the utilization of ICT. Juan Somavia (2004) buttressed this when he observed that:
Many see globalization as source of social exclusion. Growing insecurity and a sense that the rules of the game are unfair have given rise to frustrations in the hearts of many individuals and families. Official unemployment, which continues to rise, masks the even larger problem of underemployment for billions of people unable to work in ways that fully utilize their creativity or maximize their productive potential. The work of the poor is largely invisible. Far too much of women’s work is still unaccounted and undervalued. And the greatest failure of the current system is for young people who see no future
| [16] | Somavia, J (2004) Working out of Poverty. Geneva, International Labour Organization. |
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These assertions clearly expose the issue of unemployment and underemployment engendered by globalization. For millions, a common approach to recovering hope for a future is to migrate, and this mass movement of people across borders for jobs has had many externalities, or unanticipated consequences, among which is insecurity
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Today, the movement of population across frontiers has reached unprecedented proportions producing a global migration crisis. As floods of people leave their homeland for another country each year, the cross national movement has become a norm-so common that leaving one’s native country has become almost an expectation. The ease of travel and communication, combined with looser borders, give rise to endless crisscrossing streams of wanderers and quest workers, nomadic adventurers and international drifters
| [18] | Hoffman, S (2004) Gulliver Unbound: America’s Imperial Temptation and the War in Irag. Lanham, little field. |
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. This migration trend continues on a higher scale and it is not only alarming, but frightening, as people around the globe continue to move across international borders in search of resources which are not evenly distributed on the surface of the earth. Also, the unquenchable appetite to leave the shores of Africa and Asia to Europe and America has engendered irregular migration. Hence, all these movements across international borders have consequences as they have really promoted international organized crimes, such as trade in illicit drug and arms trafficking, human trafficking and forced labor, terrorism, the spread of diseases all driven by globalization.
For the sake of this paper therefore, more attention is given to migration and the spread of disease in the age of globalization, and how modern migration and globalization continue to encourage international organized crimes and finally, how modern migration and globalization remain a recipe for irregular migration in the Global South with specific reference to Africa and Asia.
3.1. Modern Migration and Public Health Concerns in a Globalized World
Few years ago, the world stood still because of a global pandemic that threatened humanity. COVID-19 which was first discovered in China spread like wildfire across the continents of the world due to global travels and contacts. Nations of the world hurriedly closed their borders to safeguard their citizens from the deadly disease which killed many within the few weeks of contraction. COVID-19 is therefore, a proof that modern migration and globalization have made the world so small that everybody is at risk of contracting disease any day, anytime. The pandemic has shaken the very foundation of the world in recent history, making nations to rethink their strategy of border management.
However, it is a fact that global migration not only comes with health challenges, but actually multiplies them. It was said that truck drivers in India for instance, who move to neighboring countries and back, are said to be the primary agents for AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) epidemic in that country and elsewhere in Asia. Today, wars are fought virtually everywhere with survivors crossing international borders as refugees. The growing number of refugees forced into unsanitary camps ravaged by cholera and other diseases that can prove as deadly as the violence and terrorism they flee is alarming. Aside this, more than 800 million tourist’s cross borders each year, most of whom are airline passengers sharing cabin-sealed environments filled with the carriers of potential fatal diseases
| [19] | World Development Indications WDI (2006) Washington D. C. World Bank. |
[19]
. Hence, a shrinking globe and mass movement of people across border, in short, has made the spread of disease rapid and difficult to control
| [20] | Chen L, Leaning J, and Narasimhan, V (2003) Global Health Challenges for Human Security (eds). Cambridge, Mass Harvard University Press. |
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Gro Harlen Brundtland, the World Health Organization’s Director General from 1998 to 2003 summarized well, the so-called globalization of health disease and the health insecurity it has created. She observed that:
The reality is that public health is, as never before, a priority on the global agenda, for the simple reason that so many of the challenges we face now have a global impact, requiring global solutions and global response. In an interconnected and interdependent world, bacteria and viruses travel almost as fast as e-mail messages and money flows. There are no health sanctuaries-no pregnable walls between the world that is healthy, well fed, and well off, and another world that is sick, malnourished, and impoverished. Globalization has shrunk distances, broken down barriers and linked people together. It has also made problems half way around the world everyone’s problem. The tenacity of the SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) virus and the public health and economic uncertainty it brings underscores this too well. Countries trying to grapple with new epidemics or collapsing under the weight of disease and malnutrition can now have a devastating impact on economies and societies around the globe. The way that we, as an international community work to address current crises and prevent future ones will determine whether we succeed or fail in shared efforts to advance global development, growth and peace. The global transformation must lead to a profound change in the way we think about health policy-locally, nationally and internationally
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Besides, the AIDS virus has become a symbol for the global spread of disease in a shrinking world. It is an epidemic, global in scope, with the number of people infected with HIV climbing to more than an estimated 70 million victims making the HIV/AIDS epidemic one of the world’s most devastating epidemic in history. The epidemic continues to spread with global migration, with over 15000 new infestations every day, and an alarming acceleration in regions and countries hitherto spared
| [22] | UNDP Human Development Report www. undp. org, Jan 14, 2006. |
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. The virus is not confined to any quarter of the globe, however; it travels across borders and throughout the world (alongside the increase in travels across borders and throughout the world) and undermines economic growth everywhere in our globalized planet. Accordingly, the HIV/AIDS epidemic is erasing a generation of progress in human development. In a country hardest hit, life expectancy is expected to drop by as much as 25 years and economies are contracting by 20 percent or more. AIDS is creating and deepening poverty, erasing economic growth, and wiping out social progress. In developing countries, HIV/AIDS is placing staggering pressures on governments and social services they deliver. And when governments are unable to respond, the epidemic gains speed. Where education, healthcare and administration are not up to the challenge, infectious rates rise, and hope for the sick, for women and families, and entire societies ebbs away. AIDS puts at risk the gains of development, the hope of improved governance and ultimately, the prospect of development itself
| [22] | UNDP Human Development Report www. undp. org, Jan 14, 2006. |
[22]
. Adding to the challenge of international infectious disease caused by globalization is the fact that we live in the shadows of new epidemics. The avian virus, for instance, might transmute to transmit itself directly from human to human
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It is pertinent to note that, humans are not the only victims of so-called borderless diseases, as was made evident in 2001, when the contagious foot and mouth diseases swept through Europe, and Europeans tried to seal their frontiers to a virus that spread with frightening speed, devastating livestock globally because borders between countries had all but dissolved and it had been years since anybody needed a passport to travel between most European countries. Therefore, globalization of health concerns is limited by the extent to which contagious diseases, viruses and infections respect state boundaries-which they don’t. The world is so interconnected to isolate these threats to health problems across national borders with increasing ease which expose the people or native to health insecurity.
3.2. Modern Migration, Globalization and International Organized Crime
While it is a fact that modern migration and globalization have contributed in trade expansion the world over, these phenomena have inadvertently facilitated the expansion of illicit activities across borders, creating what is often termed the ‘illicit global economy’ which includes the cross border flow of prohibited or regulated goods, money, and people as well as movement of stolen or counterfeit items. While they promote economic growth and interconnectedness, they have also presented opportunities for criminal network to operate transnationally, leading to challenges in law enforcement and governance
| [24] | Andreas, P (2025) The Illicit Global Economy: What Everyone Needs to Know. Polisci. brown. edu, May, 2025. |
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Figure 1. Index Scores of Criminality in Asian Context.
Hence, international organized crimes have come to live with us in the global age. Today, syndicates have taken advantage of the opportunity created by modern migration and globalization to expand by leaps and bounds, making it extremely difficult for governments to deal with. Take for instance, terrorism, illicit drug trafficking and its use are everywhere due to international contacts. There is no gain saying that illicit use of drugs is widespread and hugely profitable, and difficult to control in a borderless world. Fueled by major production and distribution complexes, the criminals are having a filled day most especially in the narcotics production. The narcotic trade for instance, generates an estimated 500 billion dollars in profit each year for the criminal empires that traffic in illegal black market drug
| [25] | Kegley, CW (2006) World Politics: Trend and Transformation. Thomson Wadsworth. |
[25]
. Therefore, a borderless world has made it possible for IOCs to contribute to corruption of government, the spread of global terrorism, the growing trafficking of women and children for prostitution and a whole host of other global problems
| [26] | Berdal, M and Serrano, M (2002) Transnational Organized Crime and International Security (eds). Boulder, Cololynne Rienner. |
[26]
. These sources of corruption reduce international security
| [27] | Thachuck, K (2005) Corruption and International Security (Review 25) Winter-Spring. |
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. The threats have multiplied by the globalization of networks among the thousands violent gangs. The United States is especially exposed to the danger with 300,000 gangs with more than 800,000 members which increasingly are linking up and going international, helped by the internet, immigration and America’s deportation of criminals
| [28] | Economist (2005) Pocket World in Figures: 2005 Edition. London: Economist. |
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. Below table shows organized crime index in Asia.
In the South Asian context, organized crime index has revealed that South Asian countries have experienced an increase in criminality levels, with scores rising by 5.82 and 5.46, respectively, compared to the Asia region’s average score of 5.47. Notably, trafficking in persons and human smuggling remains the most prevalent among the 15 illicit economies in the region.
Figure 2. Criminal Market Scores in Asia.
Figure 3. Shows the Criminal Markets, Global Average for 2021 Versus 2023.
Nevertheless, modern migration and globalization enable the street gangs to coordinate their activities with gangs abroad and increasingly organized to assist one another across borders in criminal activities for profit. Global gang networks are but a fraction of the agile stateless networks empowered by globalization. Another category is international narcotic smuggling syndicates whose yearly trade in illicit drugs at 500 billion is roughly 8 percent of world trade. In addition to illicit drugs can be included ‘arms, intellectual property, people and money…traded illegally for huge profits by international networks. They also trade in human organs, endangered species, stolen art and toxic waste. The illegal global trades in all these goods share several fundamental characteristics: Technological innovations and political changes open new markets, globalization is increasing both the geographical reach and profit opportunities for these criminal networks, and governments are on the losing end of the fight to stop them’
| [29] | Naim, M (2006) The Five Wars of Globalization, in Robert MJ (eds) Global Issues, Iowa: McGraw-Hill Duskin. |
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Aiding these networks is the financial flown throughout the world. Money can be accessed anywhere and international currencies are exchanged everywhere. While telecommunications specialists talk about the ‘death of distance’, financial specialists talk about the ‘end of geography’ because geographical location is no longer important to finance. Evidence of financial globalization abounds, as everyday more than 1.5 trillion dollars’ flows around the world, exceeding the volume of trade by 60 times
| [30] | Eizenstats, S (1999) Learning to Steer the Forces of Globalization. International Herald Tribune, January 22: 6. |
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. Part of this resources no doubt is used in sponsoring international terrorism, religious extremism, drugs and human trafficking and armed rebellion in most of the Global South societies, as well as corrupting the government by the powerful Multinational Corporations with vested interest in the exploitation of the Global South resources
| [31] | Tsaku, US (2021) Oil Politics and National Security in Nigeria: A Case Study of the Niger Delta Crisis. Being an Unpublished PhD Thesis submitted to the Department of Political Science and Defence Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy, Kaduna, Nigeria. |
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. This has made the Global South, Africa and Asia to be specific, theatres of war as internal wars are fought within states by different groups who enjoy the financial sponsorship or assistance of one international player or the other, thereby, exposing its citizen to all forms of insecurity with its attendant refugee crisis and irregular migration the wars generate. Cases in point are the DR Congo crisis, the Nigerian Civil War which was fought over oil, but was masked as a secessionist war between 1967-1970, the Tuareq rebellion in Niger and Mali over the exploitation of uranium, the Civil War in Angola, Mozambique, war against terror in Afghanistan, Iraq etc. were executed as a result of financial flow aided by globalization.
3.3. Globalization as Catalyst for Irregular Migration in the Global South: From Trance to Reality
Simply put, irregular migration is an undocumented or unauthorized migration of people that occurs outside the legal frameworks and regulations. This includes entering and staying in a country without proper documentation, crossing borders illegally or exceeding the authorized stay period
| [32] | IOM (2018) Saving lives and Protecting People on the Move. www.iom. int |
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. It is pertinent at the outset, to stress that some people use the term illegal migration for irregular migration. Therefore, key aspects of irregular migration include: movement outside legal channels, lack of proper documentation, potential for exploitation and criminality
| [33] | Ryoko, Y (2007) Crossing Boundaries: Legality and the Power of the State in Unauthorized Migration. Sociology Compass 1(1): 95-110. |
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To this end, there are a lot of humanitarian challenges irregular migrants are confronted with, which include risk of exploitation such as human trafficking and general abuse. Health related risks such as disease transmission and death are common. A lot of them especially women resort to prostitution in the course of the journey and after, to cater for their needs, as their living conditions in most cases become very poor and miserable in their new locations. On the part of men, they resort to all manner of criminality for survival and this include drug trafficking, armed robbery and smuggling which can easily lead to loss of life in transit or destination countries.
Against all odds, therefore, nations of the world strive hard to regulate and check the menace of irregular migration through law enforcement to reduce strain on host countries resources including healthcare, education and social services. Also, nations are aware of the labor market distortions and the impact of irregular migration on employment opportunities which creates social tensions and conflicts between the migrants and local populations. In the light of the above, stringent measures are used by different countries which include fencing of borders and outright removal of irregular migrants already in host countries, and in some cases, imprisonment.
It is important to stress that irregular migrants have contributed a great deal to agricultural sustainability of so many Western countries. For instance, in Italy, the irregular migrants entering into the country each year are channeled into the agriculture sector (mainly in southern Italy), and these thousands of irregular migrants are exploited for very low salaries and the migrants cannot protest due to their status in the core countries
. Therefore, by the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century, the presence of migrants working in the core’s agriculture was systemic
| [34] | Molinero G Y, and Gennaro A. (2016). “Producing Cheap Food and Labor: Migrations and Agriculture in the Capitalistic World-Ecology.” Social Change Review 14(2): 121–48. |
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. Practically, all industrialized, competitive and intensive production agricultural sectors of the core had a relevant share of both regular and irregular migrants working as farm workers. By accepting low salaries and bad working conditions, migrants maintained the core’s agricultural profitability. In fact, in countries including but not limited to the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, Israel, South Korea, New Zealand migrants occupy a key role in the composition of the agricultural workforce.
According to Frontex report (2025), the number of irregular border crossing into Europe from Global South dropped by 25% in the first two months of 2025, to nearly 2500. While most routes saw a decrease in the number of arrivals, the Central Mediterranean routes defied the trend. West African routes accounted for a significant part of the arrival in January-February. Central Mediterranean route saw the biggest rise in arrival (+48% year on year). However, Western Balkans experienced steepest drop (-64%) and top nationalities detected include: Afghan, Bangladeshi and Malian
.
Furthermore, despite the 40% decrease from 2024, the West African corridor remained the most active route for irregular migration with 7200 arrivals in January-February. Most migrants came from Mali, Senegal and Guinea. The Central Mediterranean route witnessed the biggest increase in the first two months of the year, up to 48% year on year to almost 6900. This made it the second most active route to EU. Libya remains the primary departure point on this route, with smugglers increasingly relying on powerful speedboats to outmaneuver authorities. Bangladesh nationals remain the common nationality on this route, frequently leveraging formal agreement between Libya and Bangladesh to enter legally for work before embarking on the sea crossing
.
The report further stated that by the end of February, the Eastern Mediterranean ranked the busiest migration corridor into EU, with nearly 6500 arrivals. However, detections on this route were down from 35% from a year ago. After peaking at around 6700 detections in October 2024, the pressure on this route has steadily eased amid winter weather, with numbers dropping to 2750 in February. Therefore, Sea crossings continue to put migrant’s lives at great risk, with many relying on organized criminal networks to attempt the journey. The International Organization for Migration IOM estimates that 248 people died at sea in January and February 2024. In all of 2024, this figure reached 2300, underscoring the tragic human cost of these hazardous routes. On the channel route, the number of migrants attempting to cross into the United Kingdom dropped by 28% compared to 2024, with detections slightly above 4400
. The table below summarized the report.
Table 1. Summary of Frontex Report on Irregular Migration, 2025.
ROUTE | FEBRUARY 2025 | JAN-FEB 2025 | JAN-FEB2024/JAN-FEB 2025 | TOP NATIONALITIES (JAN-FEB 2025) |
Central Mediterranean | 3357 | 6863 | 48% | Bangladesh, Pakistan, Syria |
East Mediterranean | 2749 | 6465 | -35% | Afghanistan, Egypt, Sudan |
Western African | 2469 | 7182 | -40% | Mali, Senegal, Guinea |
Western Mediterranean | 1294 | 2087 | -2% | Algeria, Morocco, Somalia |
Western Balkan | 552 | 1400 | -64% | Turkiye, Afghanistan, Syria |
Eastern Land Border | 437 | 962 | +6% | Ukraine, Russia, Sudan |
Exits towards the UK | 1894 | 4409 | -28% | Syria, Afghanistan, Iran |
Source: Frontex.europa.eu 2025
Therefore, it is truism that irregular migration poses a serious threat to the socio-economic and political well-being of different countries. Countries of the world most especially, the advanced economies grapple with influx of migrants from different parts of the world. Hence, managing borders and preventing irregular migration is a herculean task. Law enforcement has become increasingly difficult in the face of increased crimes and security concerns caused by irregular migrants especially from Africa and Asia, who risk crossing the Sahara Desert and the Mediterranean Sea with all the terror and horror associated with the journey.
Be that as it may, the issue of irregular migration cannot be analyzed in isolation; it is fallout of globalization which promotes wealth and abundance in some regions of the world, while others suffer deprivation, misery and reckless abandonment due to both internal and external factors.
3.4. Irregular Migration as Crisis of Development in Global South
The issue is no so much that development has failed in Africa, Asia and other Global South countries, but it has never really been on the agenda of the rapacious ruling and governing classes who accumulate so much wealth at the expense of the welfare of the people
| [9] | Ake C, (2003) Democracy and Development in Africa. Ibadan, Spectrum Books Limited. |
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. Since the late 1950s and early 1960s when most of the countries gained independence, the elites have been incapable of repositioning their countries on the path of sustainable growth and development despite the enormous revenue generated from the vast mineral resources, due to greed and unquenchable thirst for primitive accumulation of the collective patrimony by the selfish elites
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Corruption therefore, has become a cankerworm in these societies halting development and denying the people freedom and descent living conditions, thereby destroying the very fabrics of these societies
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. The debilitating and deplorable conditions of these countries have triggered and continue to encourage mass migration of people, especially youths to Europe and America, where they see as safe havens, to realize their potentials even without the requisite documents, compounding the already existing irregular migration challenges. Furthermore, insecurity as a crisis of development is another fundamental trigger that continues to encourage mass migration. There is hardly any Global South country that is not confronting one security challenge or the other. From Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria, to the struggle or the control of mineral resources in DR Congo, Mali and Burkina-Faso have all generated insecurity and mass migration from Africa. In the Middle East, war against terrorism and conflicts among different countries such as Israel-Palestinian war in Gaza, Lebanon, Syria have killed and displaced uncountable number of people making their nationals to flee across international borders for safety. For instance, as of 3
rd July, 2025, over 59, 600 people have been killed in Gaza war with all the implications on migration
| [38] | West Bank Monthly Snapshot: Casualties, Property Damage and Displacement. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs-Occupied Palestine territory, 3 July 2025. Retrieved 4th July, 2025. |
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.
Aside this, Civil Wars have been raging for decades in many of the Global South countries. For example, from Syria to Yemen, Bangladesh to Pakistan all are battling internal rebellion. In Africa, the continent has been reduced to a theatre of wars for decades. There is a war going on right now in Southern Cameroun between the central government and the Ambazonian people who are struggling for independence from the central government. This war has killed many Cameroonians and those who are lucky enough were able to migrate to neighboring countries and to Europe and America
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. The same situation can be said of Sudan, South Sudan, Chad, Angola and many other African states which insecurity has removed people from their countries to other parts of the world for safety and survival.
Again, poverty and lack of opportunities are another major development crisis in the Global South encouraging migration of whatever kind to the core of the world’s system. Many see migration as a viable strategy to survive the Global South economic downturn
| [40] | Ikuteyijo, LO (2020) Irregular Migration as Survival Strategy: Narratives from Youths in Urban Nigeria, in: West African Youth Challenges and Opportunity Pathways. McMillan, Palgrave. |
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. The fact that poverty is ravaging these societies and there is no hope in sight, the only option left is for the young ones to embark on irregular migration despite the risk associated with the voyage. Many believe that migration promises economic benefits as the foreign exchange rates between most countries of the Global North and Global South is sufficient incentive to migrate, as it will go a long way in liberating the entire family from the shackles of poverty and chronic lack. Therefore, the crisis of development that engendered irregular migration from the Global South to the Global North are too numerous to mention. They include but not limited to poor leadership and governance, which promote corruption, insecurity and poverty. Insurgency, mono-cultural economy, inadequate educational opportunities and resources, urban population, rural stagnation, unemployment and growing inequalities which continue to face the Global South are responsible for irregular migration.
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