Abstract
Emotional Intelligence (EI) has been widely recognized as a crucial determinant of academic success, particularly in domains requiring communication and interpersonal interaction. For teachers, pre-service teachers, Language fluency is fundamental to effective teaching which is influenced not only by cognitive abilities but also by emotional and psychological factors such as confidence, anxiety, and motivation. The present study aims to determine how emotional intelligence enhances the clarity, comprehension and confidence among the pre-service teachers making it a reliable predictor of language proficiency which is examined using an experimental research design. The study employed a pre-test–post-test control group design with a sample of 46 pre-service teachers, divided equally into an experimental group (n = 23) and a control group (n = 23). The participants were selected using random sampling techniques from a teacher education institution. The experimental group engaged in structured social-emotional learning activities designed to enhance self-awareness, emotional regulation, empathy, and social skills, while the control group continued with traditional academic instruction. Language fluency was assessed using a structured speaking assessment rubric measuring pronunciation, coherence, vocabulary usage, and expressive ability. Background variables such as gender, locality, medium of instruction, and academic achievement were also considered. Statistical techniques including mean, standard deviation, t-test, and ANOVA were used for data analysis. The absence of significant variation in pre-test scores indicated initial homogeneity across groups. However, post-test outcomes demonstrated that the experimental group achieved significantly higher scores than the control group. The results confirm that Emotional Intelligence training significantly enhances language fluency. Furthermore, variables such as medium of instruction and academic achievement showed significant influence, while gender and locality did not. Integrating Emotional Intelligence into teacher preparation programs is shown to be essential for fostering effective communication and advancing professional capabilities. It provides valuable insights for educators, curriculum developers, and policymakers aiming to improve language proficiency among future teachers.
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Published in
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American Journal of Applied Psychology (Volume 15, Issue 3)
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DOI
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10.11648/j.ajap.20261503.11
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Page(s)
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64-69 |
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Creative Commons
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This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Copyright
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Copyright © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Science Publishing Group
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Keywords
Emotional Intelligence, Language Fluency, Pre-service Teachers, Experimental Study, Teacher Education
1. Introduction
Language fluency is a fundamental requirement for effective teaching, “especially in multilingual and diverse educational contexts.”
| [3] | Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. Pearson Education. |
[3]
“Pre-service teachers must possess the ability to communicate ideas clearly and confidently.”
| [9] | Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge University Press. |
[9]
However, traditional teacher education programs often emphasize cognitive and linguistic competencies while neglecting affective factors. Emotional Intelligence, defined as the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and regulate emotions, plays a critical role in communication. “Individuals with higher Emotional Intelligence tend to exhibit greater confidence, reduced anxiety, and improved interpersonal skills, all of which contribute to enhanced language fluency.”
| [13] | Brackett, M. A., Rivers, S. E., & Salovey, P. (2011). Emotional intelligence: Implications for personal, social, academic, and workplace success. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(1), 88–103.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00334.x |
| [15] | Derakhshan, A., & Shakki, F. (2019). The role of emotional intelligence in language learning and teaching. Journal of Language and Translation, 9(2), 45–58. |
[13, 15]
Therefore, incorporating Emotional Intelligence training into teacher education programs can significantly improve communication skills among future educators. This study was undertaken to explore and critically analyze the oral communication requirements of pre-service teachers during their practice teaching experiences. The ability to communicate effectively in spoken language is a cornerstone of successful classroom interaction, influencing not only the transmission of knowledge but also the development of rapport, classroom management, and professional identity. Recognizing that practice teaching serves as a vital bridge between theory and real-world application, this research seeks to identify the specific language competencies that student teachers must acquire and demonstrate in order to thrive in diverse classroom contexts.
2. Review of Related Studies
Recent studies highlight the significant role of Emotional Intelligence (EI) in language learning. Wang and Xu found that EI positively influences language performance by increasing learners’ willingness to communicate and reducing boredom.
| [10] | Wang, R., & Xu, Q. (2026). Emotional intelligence and language learning performance. Frontiers in Psychology. |
[10]
Similarly, Bar-on and Shuhong in a meta-analysis, reported a moderate positive correlation between EI and language achievement, confirming that emotional competencies contribute to academic success.
| [2] | Bar-On, R. (2006). The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence. Psicothema. |
[2]
Babanoglu examined the relationship between EI and foreign language anxiety and concluded that learners with higher EI experience lower anxiety, which enhances language fluency.
| [1] | Babanoglu, M. P. (2025). Emotional intelligence and foreign language anxiety. Language Teaching Research. |
[1]
Supporting this, Heliyon found that EI significantly improves speaking fluency and accuracy among learners.
| [7] | Heliyon Study (2024). Emotional intelligence and speaking fluency. Heliyon. |
[7]
Goleman
reported that components of EI such as self-awareness, self-regulation, and empathy positively influence English language learning outcomes.
| [5] | Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. Bantam Books. |
[5]
Furthermore, Min He et al., emphasized the role of emotional resilience in improving language learning in modern educational contexts.
| [6] | He, M., Abbasi, B. N., & He, J. (2025). AI-driven language learning and emotional resilience. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. |
[6]
Most of the existing studies are correlational and focus on general learners, and implicated “as a multidimensional construct influencing language achievement”.
| [4] | Deepika, G., & Jennifer, J. M. (2026). Emotional intelligence and ESL/EFL learning: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology. |
[4]
There is a lack of experimental studies examining the effect of Emotional Intelligence training on language fluency among pre-service teachers because, Emotional Intelligence “manage and regulate emotions, play a critical role in communication.”
| [8] | Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: Theory, findings, and implications. Psychological Inquiry. |
| [11] | Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2008). Emotional intelligence: New ability or eclectic traits? American Psychologist, 63(6), 503–517.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.6.503 |
[8, 11]
Hence, the present study attempts to address this gap.
Although prior research has examined language competence among primary and secondary learners, limited attention has been directed toward pre-service teachers. Since language proficiency is integral to teaching efficacy—a key determinant of instructional effectiveness—this gap highlights the need for further study. Existing studies largely focus on learners in school settings, while the language competence of pre-service teachers remains underexplored. Given its strong influence on teaching efficacy and student outcomes, this area requires deeper investigation.
3. Objectives of the Study
1) To determine the effectiveness of Emotional Intelligence training on the language fluency of pre-service teachers.
2) To compare the pre-test and post-test scores of language fluency among pre-service teachers in the experimental and control groups.
3) To examine the effect of Emotional Intelligence training on the improvement of language fluency within the experimental group.
4) To examine the differences in the language fluency scores between the experimental and control groups after the intervention.
5) To investigate the influence of selected background variables such as gender, locality, medium of instruction, and academic achievement on the language fluency of pre-service teachers.
4. Hypotheses of the Study
1) There is no significant difference between the control and experimental groups in their pre-test scores of language fluency.
2) There is no significant difference between the control and experimental groups in their post-test scores of language fluency.
3) There is no significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of language fluency among the experimental group pre-service teachers.
4) There is no significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of language fluency among the control group pre-service teachers.
5) There is no significant difference in the language fluency scores with respect to gender, locality, medium of instruction and academic achievement among the pre-service teachers.
5. Methodology
The current study adopted an experimental method to examine the effectiveness of Emotional Intelligence training on language fluency among pre-service teachers. A pre-test–post-test control group design was employed, which is considered appropriate for determining the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The population of the study comprised all pre-service teachers enrolled in teacher education institutions. A sample of 46 pre-service teachers was selected using a random sampling technique to ensure equal representation and minimize bias. The selected participants were randomly assigned into two groups: an experimental group consisting of 23 pre-service teachers and a control group consisting of 23 pre-service teachers. The group undergoing the experiment was exposed to Emotional Intelligence training, while the control group continued with regular instructional practices without any intervention. This design facilitated a systematic comparison between the two groups by administering a pre-test before the intervention and a post-test after the intervention, thereby enabling the researcher to assess the effectiveness of Emotional Intelligence training on language fluency.
6. Variables
1) Independent Variable: Emotional Intelligence Training
2) Dependent Variable: Language Fluency
3) Background Variables:
a) Gender (Male/Female)
b) Locality (Rural/Urban)
c) Medium of Instruction (Tamil/English)
d) Academic Achievement (Low/Medium/High)
7. Tools Used
1) Emotional Intelligence Training Module prepared by the investigator.
2) Language Fluency Test (Speaking Assessment Rubric) conducted by the investigator.
8. Experimental Procedure
The experimental procedure of the study was carried out in a systematic manner to assess the effectiveness of Emotional Intelligence training on language fluency among pre-service teachers. Initially, a pre-test was administered to both the experimental and control groups to determine their baseline level of language fluency. Following this, the experimental group was subjected to an eight-week Emotional Intelligence training programme, which included activities and sessions focusing on self-awareness, emotional regulation, empathy, and social interaction skills. During the same period, the control group continued with their regular instructional practices without any exposure to the Emotional Intelligence training. After the completion of the intervention, a post-test was administered to both groups to measure any changes in language fluency. The comparison of pre-test and post-test scores enabled the researcher to evaluate the effectiveness of the Emotional Intelligence training programme.
9. Data Analysis
Table 1. Control and Experimental Groups Pre-Test Scores.
Group | N | Mean | SD | t-value | Significance |
Control Group | 23 | 45.21 | 4.32 | 0.28 | Not Significant |
Experimental Group | 23 | 44.87 | 4.15 |
The control and experimental groups pre-test scores of language fluency has no significant difference between them. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted.
Table 2. Control and Experimental Groups Post-Test Scores.
Group | N | Mean | SD | t-value | Significance |
Control Group | 23 | 47.13 | 4.05 | 8.12 | Significant at 0.01 level |
Experimental Group | 23 | 56.78 | 3.89 |
There is a significant difference between the control and experimental groups in their post-test scores of language fluency. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected.
Table 3. Comparison of Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores (Experimental Group).
Test | N | Mean | SD | t-value | Significance |
Pre-Test | 23 | 44.87 | 4.15 | 12.45 | Significant at 0.01 level |
Post-Test | 23 | 56.78 | 3.89 |
There is significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of language fluency among pre-service teachers in the experimental group. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected.
Table 4. Comparison of Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores (Control Group).
Test | N | Mean | SD | t-value | Significance |
Pre-Test | 23 | 45.21 | 4.32 | 1.82 | Not Significant |
Post-Test | 23 | 47.13 | 4.05 |
There is no significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of language fluency among pre-service teachers in the control group. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted.
Table 5. Gender-wise Difference in Post-Test Scores.
Gender | N | Mean | SD | t-value | Significance |
Male | 20 | 51.32 | 5.12 | 0.98 | Not Significant |
Female | 26 | 52.84 | 5.08 |
Analysis revealed no significant gender-based differences in language fluency among pre-service teachers; therefore, the null hypothesis was retained.
Table 6. Locality-wise Difference in Post-Test Scores.
Locality | N | Mean | SD | t-value | Significance |
Rural | 24 | 51.05 | 5.33 | 1.36 | Not Significant |
Urban | 22 | 53.12 | 4.89 |
There is no significant difference in language fluency with respect to locality among pre-service teachers. Hence the null hypothesis is accepted.
Table 7. Medium of Instruction-wise Difference in Post-Test Scores.
Medium | N | Mean | SD | t-value | Significance |
Tamil | 25 | 50.42 | 5.11 | 2.98 | Significant at 0.05 level |
English | 21 | 54.63 | 4.72 |
Results indicated that the medium of instruction significantly influenced language fluency in pre-service teachers; hence, the null hypothesis was not supported. Therefore, the medium of instruction directly shapes language fluency: students taught in a particular language develop stronger proficiency in that language, while limited exposure to it in instruction can hinder fluency and academic performance.
Achievement Level | N | Mean | SD | F-value | Significance |
Low | 15 | 48.75 | 4.88 | 4.67 | Significant at 0.05 level |
Medium | 16 | 52.10 | 4.92 |
High | 15 | 55.84 | 4.35 |
There is no significant difference in language fluency with respect to academic achievement among pre-service teachers. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected.
10. Discussion of Results
The findings of the present study clearly indicate that Emotional Intelligence (EI) training has a significant impact on the language fluency of pre-service teachers. The pre-test results revealed no significant difference between the control and experimental groups, confirming that both groups were homogeneous prior to the intervention. This strengthens the internal validity of the study. However, the post-test results showed a significant difference between the two groups, with the experimental group outperforming the control group. “This improvement can be attributed to the Emotional Intelligence training, which enhanced learners’ self-confidence, emotional regulation, and willingness to communicate.”
| [14] | Shao, K., Yu, W., & Ji, Z. (2013). The relationship between EFL learners’ emotional intelligence and language achievement. English Language Teaching, 6(11), 30–41.
https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n11p30 |
[14]
The significant gain observed in the experimental group between pre-test and post-test further supports the effectiveness of the intervention.
In contrast, the control group did not show any significant improvement, indicating that regular instructional practices alone are insufficient to bring about substantial enhancement in language fluency. This highlights the importance of integrating affective components such as Emotional Intelligence into language learning. With regard to background variables, the study found no significant differences based on gender and locality, suggesting that Emotional Intelligence training is equally effective across these categories. However, significant differences were observed with respect to medium of instruction and academic achievement. Students with an English medium background and higher academic achievement performed better, possibly due to greater exposure to language usage and prior proficiency levels. Overall, the findings are consistent which emphasize that Emotional Intelligence contributes significantly to communication skills, reduces anxiety, and enhances language performance.
11. Educational Implications
1) EI training should be integrated into teacher education curricula to enhance communication skills and professional competence.
2) Language teaching should not be confined to cognitive aspects alone but must include affective components such as emotional awareness, self-regulation, and empathy.
3) Teacher educators should design classroom activities that promote interaction, confidence building, and emotional development.
4) Training programmes should focus on reducing language anxiety and increasing willingness to communicate among pre-service teachers.
5) Institutions should adopt a holistic approach to teacher preparation by combining linguistic, cognitive, and emotional competencies.
12. Suggestions for Further Research
1) Similar studies may be conducted with larger and more diverse samples to enhance generalizability.
2) Longitudinal studies may be undertaken to examine the long-term impact of Emotional Intelligence training on language fluency.
3) Future research may explore the effectiveness of EI training at different educational levels such as school students or in-service teachers.
4) Comparative studies may be conducted across different regions, disciplines, or types of institutions.
5) Qualitative approaches such as interviews and observations may be incorporated to gain deeper insights into learners’ emotional development.
6) Studies may also investigate the relationship between Emotional Intelligence and other language skills such as writing, listening, and reading.
13. Conclusion
The present study concludes that the training has been effective in which the experimental findings clearly demonstrate that participants who underwent Emotional Intelligence training showed significant improvement in their language fluency. It also proves that it is an effective intervention for enhancing language fluency among the pre-service teachers. The study also establishes that emotional competencies such as self-awareness, emotional regulation, and empathy play a crucial role in facilitating effective communication.
| [12] | Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies. European Journal of Personality, 15(6), 425–448. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.416 |
[12]
The integration of Emotional Intelligence training can lead to the development of confident, competent, and emotionally balanced teachers who are better equipped to handle classroom communication. In conclusion, Emotional Intelligence is not only an essential life skill but also a powerful pedagogical tool that can significantly enhance language learning outcomes. Therefore, its inclusion in teacher education programmes is both necessary and beneficial for improving the overall quality of education.
Abbreviations
EI | Emotional Intelligence |
Author Contributions
Sharmila Lazer Ramadass: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft
Arul Catherin Jayanthy: Supervision
Ganesan Kalaiyarasan: Writing – review & editing
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
References
| [1] |
Babanoglu, M. P. (2025). Emotional intelligence and foreign language anxiety. Language Teaching Research.
|
| [2] |
Bar-On, R. (2006). The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence. Psicothema.
|
| [3] |
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. Pearson Education.
|
| [4] |
Deepika, G., & Jennifer, J. M. (2026). Emotional intelligence and ESL/EFL learning: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology.
|
| [5] |
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. Bantam Books.
|
| [6] |
He, M., Abbasi, B. N., & He, J. (2025). AI-driven language learning and emotional resilience. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications.
|
| [7] |
Heliyon Study (2024). Emotional intelligence and speaking fluency. Heliyon.
|
| [8] |
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: Theory, findings, and implications. Psychological Inquiry.
|
| [9] |
Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge University Press.
|
| [10] |
Wang, R., & Xu, Q. (2026). Emotional intelligence and language learning performance. Frontiers in Psychology.
|
| [11] |
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2008). Emotional intelligence: New ability or eclectic traits? American Psychologist, 63(6), 503–517.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.6.503
|
| [12] |
Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies. European Journal of Personality, 15(6), 425–448.
https://doi.org/10.1002/per.416
|
| [13] |
Brackett, M. A., Rivers, S. E., & Salovey, P. (2011). Emotional intelligence: Implications for personal, social, academic, and workplace success. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(1), 88–103.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00334.x
|
| [14] |
Shao, K., Yu, W., & Ji, Z. (2013). The relationship between EFL learners’ emotional intelligence and language achievement. English Language Teaching, 6(11), 30–41.
https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n11p30
|
| [15] |
Derakhshan, A., & Shakki, F. (2019). The role of emotional intelligence in language learning and teaching. Journal of Language and Translation, 9(2), 45–58.
|
Cite This Article
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APA Style
Ramadass, S. L., Jayanthy, A. C., Kalaiyarasan, G. (2026). Analyzing Language Fluency Efficiency Through Application of Emotional Intelligence Techniques Among the Pre-Service Teachers. American Journal of Applied Psychology, 15(3), 64-69. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajap.20261503.11
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Ramadass, S. L.; Jayanthy, A. C.; Kalaiyarasan, G. Analyzing Language Fluency Efficiency Through Application of Emotional Intelligence Techniques Among the Pre-Service Teachers. Am. J. Appl. Psychol. 2026, 15(3), 64-69. doi: 10.11648/j.ajap.20261503.11
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Ramadass SL, Jayanthy AC, Kalaiyarasan G. Analyzing Language Fluency Efficiency Through Application of Emotional Intelligence Techniques Among the Pre-Service Teachers. Am J Appl Psychol. 2026;15(3):64-69. doi: 10.11648/j.ajap.20261503.11
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@article{10.11648/j.ajap.20261503.11,
author = {Sharmila Lazer Ramadass and Arul Catherin Jayanthy and Ganesan Kalaiyarasan},
title = {Analyzing Language Fluency Efficiency Through Application of Emotional Intelligence Techniques Among the Pre-Service Teachers},
journal = {American Journal of Applied Psychology},
volume = {15},
number = {3},
pages = {64-69},
doi = {10.11648/j.ajap.20261503.11},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajap.20261503.11},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajap.20261503.11},
abstract = {Emotional Intelligence (EI) has been widely recognized as a crucial determinant of academic success, particularly in domains requiring communication and interpersonal interaction. For teachers, pre-service teachers, Language fluency is fundamental to effective teaching which is influenced not only by cognitive abilities but also by emotional and psychological factors such as confidence, anxiety, and motivation. The present study aims to determine how emotional intelligence enhances the clarity, comprehension and confidence among the pre-service teachers making it a reliable predictor of language proficiency which is examined using an experimental research design. The study employed a pre-test–post-test control group design with a sample of 46 pre-service teachers, divided equally into an experimental group (n = 23) and a control group (n = 23). The participants were selected using random sampling techniques from a teacher education institution. The experimental group engaged in structured social-emotional learning activities designed to enhance self-awareness, emotional regulation, empathy, and social skills, while the control group continued with traditional academic instruction. Language fluency was assessed using a structured speaking assessment rubric measuring pronunciation, coherence, vocabulary usage, and expressive ability. Background variables such as gender, locality, medium of instruction, and academic achievement were also considered. Statistical techniques including mean, standard deviation, t-test, and ANOVA were used for data analysis. The absence of significant variation in pre-test scores indicated initial homogeneity across groups. However, post-test outcomes demonstrated that the experimental group achieved significantly higher scores than the control group. The results confirm that Emotional Intelligence training significantly enhances language fluency. Furthermore, variables such as medium of instruction and academic achievement showed significant influence, while gender and locality did not. Integrating Emotional Intelligence into teacher preparation programs is shown to be essential for fostering effective communication and advancing professional capabilities. It provides valuable insights for educators, curriculum developers, and policymakers aiming to improve language proficiency among future teachers.},
year = {2026}
}
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TY - JOUR
T1 - Analyzing Language Fluency Efficiency Through Application of Emotional Intelligence Techniques Among the Pre-Service Teachers
AU - Sharmila Lazer Ramadass
AU - Arul Catherin Jayanthy
AU - Ganesan Kalaiyarasan
Y1 - 2026/07/11
PY - 2026
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajap.20261503.11
DO - 10.11648/j.ajap.20261503.11
T2 - American Journal of Applied Psychology
JF - American Journal of Applied Psychology
JO - American Journal of Applied Psychology
SP - 64
EP - 69
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2328-5672
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajap.20261503.11
AB - Emotional Intelligence (EI) has been widely recognized as a crucial determinant of academic success, particularly in domains requiring communication and interpersonal interaction. For teachers, pre-service teachers, Language fluency is fundamental to effective teaching which is influenced not only by cognitive abilities but also by emotional and psychological factors such as confidence, anxiety, and motivation. The present study aims to determine how emotional intelligence enhances the clarity, comprehension and confidence among the pre-service teachers making it a reliable predictor of language proficiency which is examined using an experimental research design. The study employed a pre-test–post-test control group design with a sample of 46 pre-service teachers, divided equally into an experimental group (n = 23) and a control group (n = 23). The participants were selected using random sampling techniques from a teacher education institution. The experimental group engaged in structured social-emotional learning activities designed to enhance self-awareness, emotional regulation, empathy, and social skills, while the control group continued with traditional academic instruction. Language fluency was assessed using a structured speaking assessment rubric measuring pronunciation, coherence, vocabulary usage, and expressive ability. Background variables such as gender, locality, medium of instruction, and academic achievement were also considered. Statistical techniques including mean, standard deviation, t-test, and ANOVA were used for data analysis. The absence of significant variation in pre-test scores indicated initial homogeneity across groups. However, post-test outcomes demonstrated that the experimental group achieved significantly higher scores than the control group. The results confirm that Emotional Intelligence training significantly enhances language fluency. Furthermore, variables such as medium of instruction and academic achievement showed significant influence, while gender and locality did not. Integrating Emotional Intelligence into teacher preparation programs is shown to be essential for fostering effective communication and advancing professional capabilities. It provides valuable insights for educators, curriculum developers, and policymakers aiming to improve language proficiency among future teachers.
VL - 15
IS - 3
ER -
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